Ancient Peopling of the Subcontinent

The Indian subcontinent has been a significant pathway for early humans

since they first appeared in Africa. While the exact timing when humans

entered this region is uncertain, evidence suggests their presence in India even before the eruption of Mount Toba in Indonesia around 74,000 years

ago. The rich tapestry of languages and cultures makes the Indian subcontinent a unique and

vibrant mosaic, reflecting the diverse histories and identities of its people. In the northern regions, you find speakers of Indo-European languages, while Dravidian

languages are more common in the south, and Tibeto-Burman languages dominate the north-eastern

areas. The Austro-Asiatic language family is represented by Munda and Santal tribes in central

India, as well as in Meghalaya and Nicobar Islands located in the Bay of Bengal. Notably

Austro-Asiatic speakers are exclusively found among tribal communities. The caste hierarchy is a characteristic feature of the Indian social system. However, its origin

is uncertain, but it is first mentioned in the Rig Veda between 1700 and 1100 BC

It's a social hierarchy based on occupation with four main categories – Brahmin, Kshatriya

Vaishya, and Shudra. When early modern humans moved out of Africa into Eurasia

there were two main paths they took. One path went through northern regions, like the Nile

Valley and Sinai Peninsula. The other path, the southern route, went from the whole North Africa

across the Red Sea into southern and southeastern Asia, including Australia. Along this southern

route, the stone tools they used were not as advanced as those found along the northern route

This suggests that people took the southern route earlier than the northern one. An interesting

find is that some of the first humans to leave Africa along the southern route settled in Andaman

and Nicobar Islands. These islanders have unique DNA showing their ancient origin and isolation

Looking at genetics helps to understand this migration. People from sub-Saharan Africa have

certain genetic markers and only one of those markers called L3 moved out of Africa around

60,000 years ago. L3 split into M and N haplogroups. The M group is interesting because it's mostly

found in South and East Asia, not along the northern route. The haplogroup M is found in

high frequency in India, the first major stop along this southern route, suggesting an early

and significant migration through this path. Genetic evidence supports the southern route

especially from mitochondrial DNA and Y chromosome haplogroups. These genetic markers point to a path

through India. Also, studies on ancient populations in South East Asia and Andaman and Nicobar Islands

support this southern route. The timing of this southern migration is older than 65,000 years

meaning that modern humans reached India around this time. The people speaking the Austro-Asiatic

language family might be a result of this early migration through South Asia, as their timeline

matches up with when these early migrations happened. The second wave of human dispersal

from Africa through the northern route reached Central Asia and radiated to North and East Asia

This wave carried prominent mitochondrial DNA haplogroups A and B. Later expansions can be

traced through the presence of subglades of haplogroup U in India and Europe. This second

migration resulted in the development and influx of Upper Paleolithic blade and Mesolithic

Microlithic technology into India. Unfortunately, there is lack of absolute dates for these cultures

making it difficult to predict their time of arrival. Around 10,000 years ago, a significant

transformation called Neolithic revolution happened. People started domesticating animals and living in settled communities, which led to more people in Eurasia. Around 8,000 years ago

in a place called Elam in southwestern Iran, important farming developments occurred

The farmers here likely spoke a special language, possibly related to Dravidian family

As they farmed, this language might have spread to Indus Valley and Indian subcontinent

The secret of this language is supported by the existence of Brahavi

a Dravidian-speaking group in Pakistan. Studies on Y-chromosome haplogroups like HG9 suggest that as farming spread eastward to Indus Valley, there was a major movement of people into

that region. These newcomers mixed with local hunter-gatherers who had been there for a long

time, creating a blend of different genetic and cultural backgrounds. The ancient genetic

components from these early peoples are mostly found in South India. Around 5000 to 1500 BC

nomadic groups from Central Asia, possibly related to Yamnaya culture, moved southward

and brought Indo-European languages with them. This arrival coincided with the decline of strong

agricultural civilizations like the Harappans in South Asia. The Indo-European languages they

brought likely replaced Dravidian languages in certain areas and might have introduced the caste

system. The Yamnaya people were skilled herders and farmers, and they were the first humans to

have blue eyes. The widely accepted idea is that these Indo-European speakers migrated in multiple

waves from their homeland using different routes across Europe and Asia. This is known as Kurgan

hypothesis. The Indo-European language is widely spoken in Europe, Persia, and India. Genetic

studies have found connections between Indo-European people and their origins in Yamnaya culture

They share specific markers in their DNA, but it's a bit tricky to fully understand

due to complexities of how populations moved, mixed, and changed over time

The original Indo-European language had a lot of words related to transportation

showing the way of life of the Yamnaya people. Interestingly, they did not have specific words

for cities or towns, suggesting they mostly lived in rural areas in Eastern Europe

The cultures that spoke Indo-European languages made big contributions to ancient civilizations

like the Vedic civilization in India, the Persian Empire, and Greco-Roman world

Around 10,000 years ago, the region in South Asia went through significant changes in its population

Before 2000 BCE, people in the Indus Valley had a mix of Iranian-Parma-related and ancient

ancestral South Indian ancestry. Then, a new group called ancestral South Indians emerged

after 2000 BCE, mixing Iranian-Parma-related and ancient ancestral South Indian ancestry. Between 2000 and 1000 BCE, a group with mostly Central-State-related ancestry moved into South

Asia. Mixing with the Indus Valley people, they became the main source of North Indian ancestry

After 2000 BCE, a mix of ancestral South Indian and ancestral North Indian populations formed

what we now see as modern Indian people. The ancestral South Indians, possibly the Indus

people, moved south and east after the decline of Indus Valley civilization, mixing with groups

having more ancient ancestral South Indian ancestry. This is linked to the distribution

of Dravidian languages in South India and southwestern Pakistan. An alternative scenario

suggests that Proto-Dravidian languages were spread by other half of ancestral South Indian

ancestry which did not come in contact with Indus region but instead originated from south and east

This idea aligns with reconstruction of Proto-Dravidian terms related to flora and

fauna unique to peninsular India. In India, tribal groups show more genetic diversity

than caste populations, hinting that tribals might be the first people to settle in the region

Even though there are uncertainties about Austro-Asiatic tribes being native to India

mitochondrial DNA studies suggest that they are among the earliest inhabitants of the region

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands were settled by early modern humans who were the first to leave

Africa. There are two distinct groups of tribes there, one with similarities to African Pygmies

and Asians and another with features resembling Chinese, Malays, and Burmese. These tribes are not

closely related to African Pygmies and their unique features might have developed over time

In Andaman Islands, the people can be divided into two main groups

Little Andaman and Great Andaman. The Little Andaman includes tribes like Ongis

Sentinelis, and Jarawa, while Great Andaman is split into northern and southern groups

In northeastern India, tribes speaking Tibeto-Burman languages likely came from southern China through the northeastern corridor. Genetic differences distinguish them from Austro-Asiatic

tribes, and some studies suggest they might be more recent arrivals. Recent genetic and

archaeological findings have clarified the history of South Asia. The ancient ancestral South Indian

population is identified as the earliest inhabitant. Two migrations shaped the current

population, one involving Iranian farmers mixing with ancient ancestral South Indians and

other with Eurasian steppe people mixing with the same group. More importantly, the research shows

that the spread of Indo-European people did not necessarily happen at the same time as the spread

of agriculture. Genetic evidence contradicts the idea that Orients built the Indus Valley

civilization over the original inhabitants of South Asia. Instead, Orients were a later group

from the northwest part of the Eurasian steppe population. Further studies are expected to

provide more insights into the complex history of South Asia