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The Indus Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization, flourished between 2500–1900 BCE in the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent, covering present-day Pakistan and western India. It was one of the earliest urban civilizations, contemporary with Mesopotamia and Egypt.
The roots of the Indus Civilization trace back to Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures, with Mehrgarh (7th millennium BCE) in Baluchistan as a key precursor (Parpola, 1994). The civilization emerged due to increased agricultural productivity, regional trade, and social complexity, developing a distinct cultural identity despite trade contacts with Mesopotamia (Possehl, 2002).
Key Features
Urban Centers: Major sites include Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, Kalibangan, and Rakhigarhi, characterized by planned streets, standardized bricks, and advanced drainage systems.
Economy: Agriculture (wheat, barley) and domesticated animals (cattle, sheep, goats) formed the economic base. Long-distance trade with Mesopotamia (Meluhha) played a significant role (Possehl, 2002).
Technology & Writing: Harappans excelled in craft production, metallurgy, and urban planning. The undeciphered Indus script, found on seals, suggests a form of written communication (Parpola, 1994).
Social Organization: The civilization lacked evidence of monarchs, indicating decentralized governance (Possehl, 2002).
Notable Archaeological Discoveries
Mohenjo-Daro: The largest site, featuring the Great Bath, a granary, and a sophisticated drainage system.
Artifacts: The "Priest-King" statue, the "Dancing Girl" figurine, and seals with animal motifs reflect artistic and cultural achievements.
Water Management: Dholavira had an advanced reservoir system, demonstrating sophisticated urban planning.
Decline and Legacy
After 1900 BCE, the civilization declined, possibly due to climate change, river shifts, or economic transformation (Possehl, 2002). While urban centers collapsed, Harappan traditions influenced later South Asian cultures in agriculture, trade, and settlement patterns.
Conclusion
The Indus Civilization remains an enigma due to its undeciphered script, but its advancements in urban planning, trade, and technology make it one of history’s most remarkable early civilizations. Ongoing research continues to explore its origins, organization, and reasons for decline.
References
Parpola, A. (1994). Deciphering the Indus Script. Cambridge University Press.
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the Indus civilization also known as the harapan civilization derives its name
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from the city of harapa located on the Ravi River's Left Bank in panjab where
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its remains were first discovered this civilization flourishing During the period between 2,500 and 1,900 BCE was
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characterized by advanced cities social hierarchies specialized crafts written
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communication and longdistance trade with regions such as Mesopotamia and
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Central Asia this remarkable civilization emerged as a culmination of
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centuries of human settlement and colonization of the Fertile aluvial
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Plains of the Indus River system the roots of the Indus civilization Trace
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back to the early hollene when societies transitioned from hunting and Gathering
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to agriculture and pastoralism this agricultural productivity laid the foundation for
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urbanization and societal differentiation initially the origins of
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the Indus Valley Civilization were attributed to external influences from Mesopotamia while the Indus Valley
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Civilization had trade connections with Mesopotamia including Overland and Maritime exchanges these interactions do
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not support the theory of a direct Mesopotamian origin for IND urban planning instead the evidence points to
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a distinct cultural and technological development native to the region traces
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of human habitation in the region date back to the Neolithic and copper age
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periods with evidence from the 7th millennium BC in the balistan Foothills
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and the fourth millennium BCE within the Indus Valley itself excavations at mear
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in Pakistan have revealed a deep and continuous cultural evolution ution in the region located near the Bolan pass a
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crucial link between the indust plain and the highlands of baluchistan and Afghanistan mayar's findings trace the
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roots of the Indus Valley Civilization to a Neolithic phase dating back to the
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7th Millennium bcee this long developmental trajectory culminated in the urban sophistication
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seen in moeno daro and haraa by the late third millennium BCE highight liting the
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uniqueness of this indigenous Civilization by the third millennium BCE
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the region was characterized by increasing trade and cultural exchanges with neighboring areas such as
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baluchistan the Persian Gulf Eastern Iran and Central Asia Mesopotamian texts
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from around 2500 BCE reference trade with regions like dilman which is the
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modern Persian Gulf and meua which is widely believed to be the Indus Valley
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these interactions likely contributed to the rise of urban Societies in the region the greater Indus region
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encompassing parts of Modern India and Pakistan was the easternmost stretch of
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a vast cultural area extending from the Mediterranean to the th desert and from
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the Arabian Gulf to Central Asia this region has always been home to diverse
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peoples each with unique languages LIF Styles and cultures archaeological
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evidence suggests that this diversity existed as far back as the hollene around 10,000 years ago despite this
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diversity the archaeological record shows similarities in artifacts and cultural practices indicating strong
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communication and interaction among these groups Innovations spread rapidly
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across the region though their acceptance might have taken time this exchange of ideas and practices fostered
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shared cultural traits while maintaining Regional distinctiveness seasonal
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migrations were a constant feature of life pastoralists from the highlands moved to the lowlands during winter and
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returned in summer these Nomads were often Crafts People Traders and Messengers spreading news goods and
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ideas this movement of people and resources was a driving force behind the
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interaction and connectivity of the Indus region the people of the indis age
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relied heavily on livestock particularly cattle sheep and goats many were
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pastoralists who migrated seasonally in search of pasture land While others were
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settled Farmers this search for resources encouraged movement and interaction
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across the region however not all movement was linked to pastoralism Traders Craftsmen and even storytellers
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contributed to the exchange of goods and ideas two major developments defin the indust
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age the transition to food production and the rise of urbanization these processes were deeply
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influenced by the interplay of local and Regional cultural practices making the
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Indus age a fascinating chapter in human history the indust civilization was
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deeply rooted in a food producing system that relied on domesticated crops like
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wheat and barley alongside animals such as cattle sheep and goats while
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traditionally associated with West Asia evidence emerging from mayagra suggests
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that the Borderlands of South Asia may have played a crucial role in this agricultural transformation highlighting
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the Region's importance in human history unlike other ancient civilizations the
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Indus civilization developed through local processes rather than external influences although it was not isolated
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it particip iated in extensive trade and cultural exchanges with regions like Mesopotamia Central Asia and the Arabian
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Gulf despite these interactions the civilization maintained its unique character and did not adopt the
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Hallmarks of statehood such as kingship or centralized bureaucracy the geography
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of the Indus civilization covered over a million square kilometers in compassing diverse terrains like the mountains of
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baluchistan the Fertile Indus Plains and the Arid regions of rajastan and
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Gujarat seasonal rainfall from winter westerley and summer monsoons supported
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the agricultural economy contributing to the civilization's resilience the civilization was
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organized into sub regions or domains that reflected geographical and cultural
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diversity these domains challenge earlier views of the Indus culture as a uniform entity and highlight the complex
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settlement patterns and social organization of its people the Indus River known in ancient
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texts as synu is a Lifeline for the syn region transforming it from an arid
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landscape into fertile lands capable of sustaining agricultural
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Prosperity the river's Dynamic and often unpredictable Behavior including flooding caused primarily by Himalayan
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snow melt has shaped the environment and settlement patterns of the region
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historical reconstructions suggest that the river has changed its course multiple times influencing the
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development and eventual decline of nearby civilizations the sarasvati river
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identified with the modern Gaga hakra River played a significant role in vadic culture and is often celebrated in hymns
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as a sacred Waterway geographical and archaeological evidence indicates that
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the sarasvati once flowed through Rajasthan forming an inland delta near
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Fort deroir during the mature harapan period this area supported numerous
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settlements due to its naturally irrigated and fertile soil however
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tectonic activity and stream capture by the yamuna river caused the sarasvati to
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dry up leading to its diminished role in later periods the climatic conditions during
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the Indus age were marked by seasonal variations rather than long-term
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changes while earlier theories suggested higher rainfall in the greater Indus region evidence from pollen studies and
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Lake salinity levels has been inconclusive with tectonic activity
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possibly playing a more critical role in altering drainage patterns overall the Region's weather maintained a stable
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pattern of hot wet Summers and cool dry Winters providing a relatively
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consistent environment for the development of the industry civilization these geographical and
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environmental factors combined with the adaptability of the Indus people contributed to the civilization's
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resilience and complexity the harapan civilization was extensive with sites discovered as far a
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field as Gujarat the Ganges Valley near Delhi the frontier with Iran at Suk
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gendor and shugi near the oxus river in Central Asia while these distant
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settlements may have functioned as tra outposts or colonies rather than integral parts of a centralized Empire
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they illustrate the vast reach and influence of harapan society despite its
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geographical expanse the material culture of the civilization was remarkably uniform although this
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homogeneity has occasionally been overstated these intricately carved
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objects depict animals numerical symbols and an undeciphered script found as far
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away as Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf alongside standardized Stone weights the
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seals point to an organized system of trade some seals also convey religious
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imagery featuring humans surrounded by animals or groups of worshippers around
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a deity in a tree technological achievements were a Hallmark of the haraan civilization
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early excavations at mohenjodaro reveal Advanced urban planning exemplified by
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well constructed Ed buildings sophisticated drainage systems and impressive public works such as the
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great bath on the Citadel of moeno daro industrial scale craft production
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flourished in zones located on the periphery of residential areas highlighting the community's focus on
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functional highquality production over Monumental art the spacious houses and
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elaborate drainage systems of the lower town at mohenjo daro hint at the existence of an affluent Urban class
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whose economic and political influence shaped the civilization's character
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maheno daro the largest city of the Indus Valley Civilization was discovered
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in 1922 beneath the ruins of a Buddhist stuper this ancient city dating back to
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the third millennium BCE stands as a testament to one of the world's earliest
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Urban centers it's ruins reveal a civilization
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of remarkable sophistication but also a fragile Legacy threatened by time and
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human intervention the story of moeno daro began in 1922 when local fishermen in the Indus
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Valley spoke of a Bewitched Mound the site shunned for its Eerie reputation
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attracted the attention of archaeologists on Investigation the mound's brick structure was identified
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as the remains of a plundered stuper from the kushana period beneath it he
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Unearthed mysterious seals engraved with animal motifs and undeciphered symbols
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these artifacts hinted at a civilization older than any previously known in the region simultaneously identical seals
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were discovered at haraa in panjab in 1924 Sir John Marshall director general
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of archaeology in India announced these findings placing the Indus Valley Civilization alongside Egypt mesop Amia
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and China as one of the great Cradles of human history before its Discovery the
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earliest documented history of South Asia began with Alexander the Great's arrival in
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326 BCE unlike Mesopotamia Egypt and China
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which had written records of their ancient civilizations the Indus civilization remained hidden until
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uncovered through archaeological efforts system atic excavations of the
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Indus sites began in the 1920s under John Marshall leading to the identification of advanced Urban centers
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like harappa and mohenjo daro postp partition research significantly
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expanded our understanding of the Indus civilization in Pakistan sites like Codi
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clarified the transition from early to mature harapan phases while sariola shed
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light on Neolithic and Iron Age Connections in India discoveries in
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Gujarat such as rangpur lothal catada and DOA redefined the civilization's
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Borderlands with DOA revealing Advanced water management excavations at
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kalibangan in the sarasvati valley and rakari a major mature harapan site
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further enriched knowledge of urban planning cemeteries and seals collectively enhancing insights into the
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civilized ations spread and complexity key findings at mohenjo daro
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included the great bath intricate drainage systems and iconic artifacts like the priest King statue and the
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dancing girl these discoveries highlighted the civilization's advanced
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urban planning Artistry and unique cultural practices distinct from vadic
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and Aryan Traditions Marshall's work established the civilization sign significance
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emphasizing its connections with other Bronze Age cultures while maintaining its distinct identity Marshall's
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synthesis of the indust civilization offers an extensive examination of its physical and cultural aspects he
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postulated that the climate during the Bronze Age in Pakistan and Northwestern India was wetter than today based on
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evidence like the use of baked bricks for rain protection Street drains for water management and the absence of
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lions in art however modern Scholars largely reject the hypothesis of a
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wetter climate asserting that conditions were similar to the present his view
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that the civilization demonstrated a striking uniformity across distant sites
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like moeno daro and haraa has found greater acceptance Marshall also highlighted
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unique cultural features such as the quality of indis art the use of cotton
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over flax and the advanced writing system he believed these traits
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reflected a distinct National character yet acknowledged shared Technologies and ideas with other Bronze Age
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civilizations like Suma and Proto elamites his assertion that the harapan
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were not linked to Arian or vdic culture but possibly spoke dravidian languages
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was a critical contribution to understanding their distinct identity on
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religion Marshall proposed that the indis people worshiped a male God and a female deity and had Cults associated
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with fertility symbols he linked their practices to early shaktism and
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suggested connections to other contemporary civilizations while he meticulously argued for parallels with
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Mesopotamia he avoided conflating the harapan culture with being Indo Sumerian
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instead emphasizing the shared yet independent evolution of these
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societies Marshall's work though foundational had its limitations including speculative ideas like the
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wetter climate and limited evidence for the extent of cultural diffusion given its scale and unexplored
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potential moeno daro is considered one of the best preserved and most impressive Bronze Age cities in the
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world the city was built with baked bricks and when it was abandoned it wasn't destroyed but simply left to
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Decay over time it is believed to have been the ideological part of the Indus
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civilization showcasing the cultures beliefs Urban nature and advanced
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technology the name moeno daro comes from the Cindi language and while some
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suggest it may relate to a Hindu god the term is more commonly understood as mound of the dead men with daro meaning
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Mound and Moen or muan meaning dead
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maheno daro is known for its unique l out there is a high mound in the west
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about 400 m by 200 m in size which has had several names over time it is
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separated from the Lower Town by an open unoccupied area the Lower Town itself is
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about 1,100 M by 650 m in size some
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archaeologists believe the city was larger than what is visible today as subsurface surveys have found remains of
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buildings and pot beyond the current Mounds additional remains have been found to the south and
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east of the city suggesting the area covered by maheno daro may have been even more expansive based on these
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findings the size of maheno daro is estimated to be around 100 hectares
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though this could change as more discoveries are made the mound of the great bath in mohenjodaro is an
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important part of the city but it was not a citadel meant for protection
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it was an artificial platform built using Earth and Broken Bricks to elevate important buildings like the great bath
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and a warehouse the platform was held together by strong brick walls to
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prevent erosion the entrance to the mound of the great bath is not entirely clear but one main entrance is through a
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wide staircase at the back of the mound visitors could also enter through a small gate at the Southeastern Corner
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the great bath itself is located slightly off Center on the mound and is a large sunken pool about 39 ft long and
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23 ft wide it was lined with perfectly fitted bricks and waterproofed with
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bitumen a type of tar the water was supplied by a well and there was a drain
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for the water to flow out of the bath the drain had a beautifully built Arch
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and could be used for cleaning the bath had steps at both ends for people to enter and a platform to stand on on
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while bathing surrounding the bath were rooms and small bathing Chambers and the
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whole area was part of a large organized drainage system the exact purpose of the
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great bath is still debated but it was likely used for ritual or hygienic purposes the great bath was built early
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in the history of moeno daro likely during the mature harapan period over
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time its function changed and it was eventually abandoned the area around it
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was later used for craft production the bath was filled in and the site was
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repurposed evidence shows that as the structure was used less for Prestige and ritual purposes it became a place for
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work and production the warehouse located next to the great bath was a
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large Building made mostly of wood it had a strong roof and wooden supports
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and the walls were made from planks possibly from deodar trees brought from C ashmir the exact purpose of the goods
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stored there is unclear but they were likely used for everyday needs such as
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food cloth fuel or distribution while the great bath and Warehouse are unique
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to moeno daro their relationship suggests they may have served a specific function in this city not necessarily in
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the whole Indus civilization from the warehouse a large staircase LED down to the flood plane
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offering a wide view of the surrounding land landscape there were no walls around the city even near the warehouse
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making it an open area the College of priests was likely the residence of a high official possibly the high priest
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or a group of priests it was a large building about 70 M long and 24 M wide with significant
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changes over time the design included large rooms on the North and South sides
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with smaller rooms in the middle the people who frequented the great bath Warehouse and College of priests were
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high- ranking individuals religious Specialists officials and respected members of
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society these people may have lived in or near the College of priests it is
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unlikely that ordinary citizens of maheno would have had access to this area symbolizing exclusivity and power
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it was a place for Elites to oversee the city and its lower classes using both
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physical separation and height to maintain a symbolic division of Social
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roles the great bath at mohenjodaro is unique within the Indus civilization
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with no such structures found at other sites the people using it may not have been priest Kings but they likely held
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some form of political influence the L area at the southern end of the mound of the great bath is
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important but its function is still unclear Some believe it was an assembly
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hall for priests or monks similar to Buddhist caves while some thought it
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might have been a Marketplace some suggest it could have been an audience chamber with the
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building being about 23x 27 M featuring four rows of columns and a strange
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Paving pattern between them that remains a mystery east of the Citadel separated by
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a 200 M wide strip of open ground is the Lower Town the primary residential area
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this layout characterized by a clear division between the administrative and residential zones is a Hallmark of Indus
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Valley Cities and is also observed at haraa and kalibangan the Lower Town sits on a
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rectangular Mound that has eroded over time but remains visible a main road
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runs north to south while two deep depressions in the South running east to west form small hills that Marshall once
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linked to the Indus River the best way to enter maheno daro's lower town today is through the
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HR area in the southwestern part of the site this area reveals a lot about the
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city's history including evidence of late settlement and even a massive fire
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towards the end of its existence one of the most striking features is First Street a wide Road over 10 m across it
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was likely used for wheel transport though there's no clear evidence of carts being being used within the city
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the street is lined with tall blank brick walls with very few doors or Windows suggesting that the people of
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mohenjodaro valued privacy and security there are two modern parts to the HR
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area section A to the East and section B to the West in the HR area on First
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Street you see the house one believed to have been a temple nearby is dead man's
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L A Narrow Street with an eerie past excavators found a human skeleton lying
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at its end giving the street its name most of the buildings in this area were
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homes of the city's Elite featuring large Courtyards solid baked brick walls
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and well-planned layouts these houses reflect the advanced urban planning and social
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structure of moeno daro showing a City built for both comfort and order in the
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HRA area house 8 was one of the grand residences of maheno daro located in an
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upscale neighborhood near First Street built with thick baked brick walls the
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house reflected the wealth and status of its owners its Construction and design
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suggest that it was a well-planned Structure meant for a luxurious Lifestyle the house had two entrances a
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main door on high Lane and a back door offering both privacy and
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Security in side a central Courtyard served as the heart of the home likely
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open to the sky to allow light and ventilation the house had no exterior
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windows which kept the lower floors dark but also helped to maintain a cooler indoor environment an important feature
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of moeno daro's hot climate a well-structured drainage system was in
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place designed primarily for rainwater and domestic waste rather than sewage
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there was also a private well inside a small room providing easy access to
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water next to it bathing areas were built with brick floors and they had a small drain leading to the street a sign
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of the city's Advanced sanitation system a staircase led to the Upper Floor where
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rooms were arranged around the open courtyard this design helped with airf
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flow making the upper floors more livable during moeno daro's scorching
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Summers the presence of multiple rooms including storage areas and possibly servant quarters suggests that the
26:32
household was well staffed excavations at house 8 revealed millstones and wheat
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grains indicating that food storage and grinding took place in the courtyard a
26:43
large number of shell Bangles and other artifacts were also discovered hinting at the presence of Craftsman or trade
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connections these findings further emphasized that the residents of house 8 were part of maheno daro's elite Society
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the hrb area in the Lower Town of mohenjo daro reveals significant aspects
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of urban planning economic activities and daily life through specific findings
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among the most notable is the residential architecture Lane one leads
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into the northern part of hrb turning left onto Street two leads
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South into block two house 8 has a rare Kiln in room 17 a late addition to the
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city room eight contained a significant jewelry horde including two silver vises
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their oxidation preserved traces of cotton fabric confirming its use in moeno daro house 5 the largest structure
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in Block 2 features a central Courtyard a private well and multiple rooms it is
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known for the HR area tragedy where archaeologists found human skeletal
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remains suggesting a catastrophic event theories range from Invasion and
27:58
Massacre to disease or flooding later studies challenged The Invasion Theory
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noting the skeletons were in different layers not a single event room 49 in
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house 5 has maheno daro's only Corell Arch doorway its 5 m High walls have beam
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holes for large Rafters indicating a ceiling built for heavy loads
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excavations uncovered 18 large ring stones
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the VSS area north of First Street comprises vssb East and VSA West vssb
28:37
has three houses with limited documentation while vssa features block four and human remains in block three
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lane 4 suggesting a tragic event east of vs the monia area contains stone cutting
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workshops for semi-precious stones beads weights and copper tools indicating its
28:58
role in The Craft industry the dka area has a wide East West Street possibly
29:04
part of a city grid dkb representing maheno daro's Final Phase shows poorly
29:10
built structures reflecting Urban decline the dkc area 7,800 sare M
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yielded a jewelry horde in a silver vase possibly hidden due to conflict the dkg
29:24
area of maheno daro covers 28,000 m a major eastwest road called Central
29:31
Street divided it into northern and southern portions another important Road
29:37
West Street ran parallel to First Street in the northern portion the dkg southern
29:43
portion covering 16,000 square m had significant architectural changes over
29:49
200 to 300 years the most notable structure was block one believed to be a
29:54
palace or public building evidence of craft activities including two kils for
30:00
firing Pottery or metal work suggests industrial use in the city's later years
30:05
dkg Northern portion about 12,000 square m was an important entry point to the
30:11
City West Street a major road narrowed from 4.8 m in the South to 3 m in the
30:18
north and had a drainage system some blocks in the north were built on raised
30:23
platforms possibly to accommodate a growing population which challenges the idea of the city's decline craft
30:30
activity continued here and three hordes of copper bronze objects including a prancing goat figurine were found the
30:38
Western most blocks were poorly built indicating declining construction quality in moeno daro's final
30:46
years maheno daro stands out as one of the most iconic cities of the indust
30:52
civilization with its Advanced urban planning wealth and Architectural achievement
30:59
the city represents a culmination of the sociopolitical economic and cultural ideals of the Indus people its Urban
31:07
Design particularly the use of baked brick and the great bath indicates a well organized and prosperous Society
31:14
unlike other indis cities maheno daro shows a level of sustained investment in
31:19
its infrastructure which suggests that it was not just another settlement but
31:25
an essential representation of what it meant to be part of the Indus civilization the inhabitants of maheno
31:32
daro were likely part of a socially stratified Society with Elites residing
31:38
in Monumental structures such as those near the great bath these Elite
31:44
individuals could have included leaders ritual Specialists or administrators who
31:50
played a key role in the Ci's functioning additionally it is possible that Travelers potentially of a higher
31:57
social class stayed in facilities designed for short-term use evidenced by bathing
32:03
platforms and other amenities tailored for Comfort while the wealthier classes
32:08
lived in large well-planned homes the lower classes including possible servants might have occupied the lower
32:15
levels of these structures despite its architectural Grandeur maheno daro was not a place
32:22
where farmers and herders lived permanently while there was likely agricultural activity in the surrounding
32:28
areas it seems that most of the City's population was not directly involved in
32:34
farming or pastoralism the upper classes may have owned agricultural lands or managed them
32:40
but the daytoday work of farming would have been carried out outside the city
32:45
this is supported by the fact that the city appears to have been more focused on Craft production Commerce and
32:52
administrative activities rather than primary agricultural work the presence
32:58
of commercial buildings and storage facilities indicates that maheno daro functioned as a vibrant Center for trade
33:06
in the later phases of mahena daro's History the city became a hub for craft
33:11
production especially in areas like dkg South this shift suggests a change in
33:18
the social fabric of the city where crafts persons may have begun to play a more prominent role in the city's
33:25
economy although there is evidence of Comm Merce and trade the archaeological findings do not provide a complete
33:32
picture of how commercial activities were organized or operated as a result
33:37
while it is clear that maheno daro was a center of wealth and activity much of the everyday life and function of its
33:44
buildings remains enigmatic the abandonment of maheno daro remains one
33:49
of the most intriguing mysteries of ancient history while the exact reasons for its decline are not fully understood
33:56
several fact has likely contributed to its fall with the collapse of the Indus
34:02
civilization's ideological social and economic structure being a key aspect
34:08
one of the central theories is that a failure of the Indus civilization's ideology may have led to the downfall of
34:15
mohenjodaro the city representing the ideals of the mature harapan phase was
34:21
built on principles of urban planning communal living and religious or ritual
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significance if these these foundational principles were undermined perhaps due to shifts in religious beliefs political
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Authority or economic systems the city could have lost its cohesion and purpose
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the abandonment of crucial Civic and religious structures such as the great bath and the warehouse suggests a
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decline in the social and administrative functions that once sustained the city
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these buildings which were Central to moeno daro's Identity and urban life losing relevance or ceasing to be
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maintained might have been indicative of broader societal breakdowns by 1900 BCE
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Urban centers like harappa and maheno daro ceased to function as complex
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societies life persisted in the plains and mountains of Northwestern India and
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Pakistan while older Traditions persisted significant cultural changes
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occurred including shifts in ideology and the adoption of new custom
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s around 1,000 BCE the widespread use of smelted iron marked a technological and
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cultural transition alongside this development the Vaders foundational texts of
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Hinduism emerged signaling the end of the Indus age and the beginning of a new
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historical phase more closely associated with the modern world the harapan
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civilization in its mature form appears to have ended around 1800 BC BCE for
35:59
years the discovery of scattered skeletons in the ruins of maheno daro
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fueled theories of a violent Invasion that massacred its inhabitants however
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more recent findings suggest a more complex narrative not all the skeletons
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belong to the civilization's final days and signs indicate that the city experienced a gradual decline before its
36:22
eventual abandonment historical records and archaeological evidence also point to
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significant population movements around 1700 BCE which may have contributed to
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the broader upheaval of that era despite its decline the haraan civilization did
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not vanish entirely at the onset of this period in fact advances in agriculture
36:47
during this time point to a thriving adaptation of society staple winter crops like wheat
36:54
and barley once Central to harapon diets were joined by summer crops such as rice
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Millet and sorghum these Innovations along with a mix of environmental and socioeconomic
37:05
factors likely destabilize the established Urban centers even so
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aspects of harapan material culture persisted into the second millennium BCE influencing settlements in the Indus
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Valley and extending as far as the Ganges plain near present day Delhi far
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from being annihilated the harapan Legacy contribut Ed to the foundation of
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ancient Indian culture shaping its Evolution well into the first millennium
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BCE our understanding of maheno daro remains incomplete with many questions
37:42
unanswered key aspects such as the location of the city's cemeteries or its relationship with surrounding
37:48
settlements remain shrouded in mystery some theories suggest that moeno
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daro was a central Hub supported by smaller Outpost towns that supplied food
38:00
and utilized its services however confirming this theory is challenging
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due to the possibility that surrounding sites and cemeteries have been buried under Indus River sediments or rendered
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inaccessible by Rising groundwater levels the platform on which maheno daro
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was built provides Clues to its development and challenges constructed
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from massive amounts of clay the platform protected the city from flooding in the Indus Valley where
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annual sediment deposits raised the river Plains however the exact extent of
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groundwater rise over the centuries remains uncertain with estimates varying
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from 3 to 15 M early excavators believed this rise obliterated the oldest layers
38:48
of the city limiting knowledge of its Origins recent discoveries of Kiln fired
38:54
Pottery at depths of 16 to 20 M suggest the city's earlier stages may still lie
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buried further investigations have explored theories about the city's disappearance one theory proposes that
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moeno daro was engulfed in mud following the bursting of a Natural Dam on the
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Indus River while clay deposits analyzed from the site's Citadel area were
39:18
thought to support this idea subsequent granular metric studies revealed that
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the clay was likely used for construction not deposited by flooding archaeological surveys have begun
39:30
revealing parts of the city's platform and surrounding features these findings
39:35
suggest the clay for the platform might have been extracted from areas near the site potentially leaving trenches that
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could still hold important artifacts however such trenches were often used as
39:48
Refuge dumps complicating the interpretation of fines like Pottery at
39:53
Great depths despite the city's apparent demand maheno daro remains a vital
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subject of study ongoing research seeks to clarify its development social
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organization and the causes of its decline while early theories such as
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Mesopotamian influence have guided investigations modern techniques and
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interdisciplinary approaches promised to uncover new insights into this ancient
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Urban Marvel maheno daro's story is far from complete offering end less
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possibilities for Discovery and understanding
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[Music]