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In the sun-baked plains of southern Mesopotamia, the ancient city of Uruk (modern-day Warka, Iraq) ignited a revolution that shaped human history. Founded as early as 4000 BCE, Uruk became the world's first true metropolis—a sprawling urban center of temples, trade, and kingship—laying the foundation for civilization itself.
From its legendary ruler Gilgamesh, immortalized in the Epic of Gilgamesh (2100 BCE), to its towering city walls and proto-cuneiform writing, Uruk pioneered innovations that defined Sumer:
The Birth of Cities: By 3200 BCE, Uruk's urban explosion—the "Uruk Phenomenon"—spread its culture across Mesopotamia.
Gods and Power: The Eanna District's monumental temples marked a shift toward centralized religion, while rival city-states clashed over land and water.
Clay, War, and Empire: From plano-convex bricks to history's first recorded wars (like Lagash vs. Umma), Uruk's legacy fueled the rise of Akkad and Babylon.
Yet Uruk's dominance faded as droughts, rival cities, and nomadic migrations reshaped Mesopotamia. By 2600 BCE, its epic saga was etched in clay—a blueprint for every empire that followed.
Why Uruk Matters:
Namesake of Iraq (via "Uruk" → "Erech" → "Iraq")
Origin of writing, mass production, and large-scale governance
The epic battleground of gods, kings, and immortality
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0:02
[Music]
0:07
The rise of city states in ancient
0:09
Mesopotamia goes back to ancient Oruruk,
0:12
a city whose legacy still resonates
0:14
today. Located in the southern region of
0:16
Suma, what is now modern-day Warka in
0:19
Iraq, Oruruk is believed to have
0:21
inspired the name Iraq and is considered
0:24
the birthplace of key historical
0:26
developments. People are interested in
0:29
Oruruk, not just for its immense
0:31
historical significance, but also
0:33
because it's mentioned as Eric in the
0:36
book of Genesis. It's also the legendary
0:38
setting of one of the world's oldest
0:40
stories, the Epic of Gilgamesh.
0:44
This incredible tale written around
0:46
2,100 B.CE on clay tablets in Aadian
0:51
follows Gilgamesh, the great king of
0:53
Oruk, on his epic quest for immortality.
0:58
The most complete version of this epic
1:00
was found centuries later in the library
1:02
of the Assyrian king Asher Baraniples in
1:04
Nineveh which is in modern-day Iraq.
1:08
Imagine that a story so ancient yet it
1:11
survived for millennia.
1:13
According to the Sumerian king list and
1:16
Murka founded Oruro followed by kings
1:19
Lugalband and Gilgamesh. Between the 9th
1:22
and 4th millennia B.CE. The fertile
1:25
crescent saw rapid societal evolution.
1:28
By the 4th millennium B.CE, southern
1:30
Mesopotamia, especially Oruro, began to
1:34
stand out, transforming into the first
1:37
urban society by 3,200
1:40
B.CE.
1:41
This shift, known as the Oroch
1:43
phenomenon or Oroch intrusion, saw the
1:46
city's material culture spread far and
1:49
wide. The Oroch period is divided into
1:52
distinct phases. The early Orok phase
1:56
between 4,000 and 3,500 B.CE reflects
2:00
continuity with the earlier Ubide period
2:03
in architecture and ceramics. During the
2:06
middle or phase between 3,500 and 3,300
2:10
B.CE, urbanization accelerated and Oro
2:14
expanded its influence across southern
2:16
Mesopotamia.
2:18
In the late Orochuk phase between 3,300
2:21
and 3,100 B.CE, the city saw significant
2:25
architectural and cultural advances
2:28
including the development of protounia
2:30
form writing and the construction of
2:32
large public buildings.
2:35
The period immediately following 3000
2:38
B.CEE CE known as Gemdettonro after the
2:41
place of its discovery was largely a
2:43
continuation of late Orok but with an
2:46
emphasis on speeding up production.
2:48
Cylinder seals for instance became less
2:51
detailed because artisans prioritized
2:53
quicker methods of production. While
2:56
these seals looked rougher than before,
2:58
the focus was on efficiency. The writing
3:01
system also evolved with a new technique
3:03
where marks were pressed into clay using
3:06
a stylus held at an angle. This made the
3:09
script more abstract, resembling later
3:12
form writing. In pottery, mass
3:15
production began to take hold. Potters
3:18
used a wheel to quickly form bowls from
3:20
a large lump of clay, producing one bowl
3:23
after another with little waste. This
3:26
trend of speeding up processes was
3:28
evident across different aspects of life
3:30
in Gemdet Nasser, continuing what had
3:33
already begun in the late Oro period. A
3:36
major change in Oruro occurred around
3:38
3,200 B.CE when the city's layout was
3:41
reorganized
3:43
in the Iana district. The variety of
3:45
buildings was replaced by one large
3:47
central structure, likely a temple,
3:50
which stood on a terrace surrounded by
3:52
smaller buildings. This new layout
3:54
symbolized a shift towards centralized
3:57
religious power. At the same time, the
3:59
western part of the city saw the White
4:01
Temple integrated into a massive
4:03
terrace, marking a similar concentration
4:06
of authority in this area. Toward the
4:09
end of the late Oruro period, Oruro's
4:11
influence over neighboring regions began
4:13
to wne. The extensive trade and
4:16
political connections Orok had with
4:18
surrounding areas began to dissolve with
4:21
local networks forming instead. For
4:24
example, the protoelomite network
4:26
emerged, linking Suziana, modern Kustan
4:29
with areas further east rather than with
4:32
Mesopotamia, signaling a realignment of
4:35
regional dynamics. The period after 3000
4:38
B.CE CE is called the early dynastic
4:41
period because it marks the time when
4:43
the first dynasties of rulers were
4:45
recorded. A new type of brick known as
4:48
plano convex bricks was introduced
4:50
during this time. These bricks had a
4:53
curved top like a cake baked in a
4:56
rectangular pan. And it's believed they
4:58
were used to speed up construction
5:00
compared to the smaller older bricks.
5:03
This new brick design was used to build
5:05
Oro's massive city wall, which was about
5:08
9.5 km long and featured 900 towers and
5:12
several fortified gates. According to
5:15
the epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh, the
5:18
famous king of Oruruk, was responsible
5:20
for building this wall, and
5:22
archaeological evidence dates it to
5:24
around 3,00 to 2,900
5:26
B.CE, matching the time when Gilgamesh
5:29
is thought to have lived. By this
5:32
period, Oruro had grown significantly.
5:34
The city expanded to cover over 5 square
5:37
kilm, nearly tripling in size compared
5:40
to 3,200
5:42
B.CE. Most of this area in and outside
5:45
the city walls was densely populated.
5:48
This rapid growth wasn't just due to
5:50
natural population increases, but was
5:53
likely tied to changes in the
5:54
surrounding areas. In earlier times
5:57
during the late Orok period, there were
5:59
around 110 small settlements around
6:02
Oruruk. However, by 2,900 BCE, fewer of
6:07
these settlements remained, but the ones
6:10
that did survive had grown larger. For
6:12
example, a cluster of 11 small
6:14
settlements northeast of Oruro shrank to
6:17
only three, but the central one became
6:20
much bigger. Some medium-sized
6:22
settlements had also grown large enough
6:24
to be considered cities. Another
6:26
important change was in the water
6:28
system. During the late Oro period,
6:31
there were many rivers and streams used
6:33
for irrigation. By the early donastic
6:35
period, these natural water courses were
6:38
straightened and transformed into
6:40
canals, marking the beginning of
6:42
largecale irrigation systems that would
6:45
later define the region of Babylonia.
6:48
By around 3000 B.CE, E water shortages
6:51
became a growing problem in the
6:53
Babylonian plain where settlements had
6:55
previously thrived due to easy access to
6:58
natural water sources. As water became
7:01
scarcer, many areas no longer had direct
7:04
access to flowing rivers or streams.
7:08
People tried to solve this by building
7:09
long canals to bring water to those
7:11
areas, but many smaller settlements were
7:14
abandoned. As a result, the populations
7:17
of these abandoned settlements moved to
7:19
larger cities like Oruro, causing these
7:21
cities to grow rapidly. By the middle of
7:24
the 3rd millennium B.C.E., most of the
7:26
population in Babylonia lived in cities.
7:29
As these cities grew, so did the
7:31
challenges, including managing conflicts
7:34
among the growing urban population and
7:36
ensuring there was enough food and water
7:38
for everyone. The need for canal
7:41
irrigation led to the development of
7:43
what were essentially irrigation oases.
7:47
These oases were agricultural areas fed
7:49
by canals branching from the Euphrates
7:51
River. However, their success depended
7:54
on a reliable water supply which became
7:57
harder to maintain as the climate dried
8:00
and competition for water increased.
8:03
This reliance on canal irrigation also
8:06
brought risks. Water levels in the
8:08
rivers fluctuated from year to year,
8:10
meaning some areas, especially those on
8:13
the edges of the irrigation system
8:15
didn't always receive enough water. In
8:18
response, people in these marginal areas
8:20
developed a semi-edentry lifestyle,
8:23
focusing more on hering when water was
8:25
scarce. Over time, this way of life made
8:28
it easier for nomadic groups from
8:30
outside to settle in Babylonia, shaping
8:33
the region's future population and
8:35
culture. As cities in Mesopotamia grew,
8:39
especially after attaining the status of
8:41
city states, they needed more land to
8:43
provide enough food for their increasing
8:45
populations.
8:47
This expansion often led to overlapping
8:49
territories with older cities, sparking
8:52
new types of conflicts. Although
8:54
military operations may have occurred
8:56
before, as hinted in ancient texts like
8:59
the Epic of Gilgamesh, the closer
9:01
proximity of cities made these conflicts
9:03
harder to avoid and resolve. Around
9:07
2,600 B.CE, the nature of historical
9:11
records changed significantly. For the
9:13
first time, writing began to be used for
9:16
more than just recording economic data.
9:19
Inscriptions appeared that detailed the
9:21
achievements of rulers, their family
9:23
histories, and political events, marking
9:26
a shift toward documenting history more
9:29
comprehensively.
9:30
This gave historians a clearer picture
9:33
of individual kings, dynasties, and
9:36
their historical context, even though
9:38
the events themselves may not have been
9:40
more significant than those of earlier
9:42
times. One of the most welldocumented
9:45
conflicts of this era occurred between
9:48
the cities of Lagash and Umar around
9:51
2500
9:52
B.CEE.
9:54
These cities fought for generations over
9:56
a disputed region and a shared canal at
9:59
their border. Various attempts were made
10:02
to resolve the conflict through war,
10:05
treaties, and arbitration, but the
10:07
dispute kept reigniting.
10:10
The recurring nature of these conflicts
10:12
demonstrated the limits of the
10:14
city-state system. Ultimately, only by
10:17
forming larger territories or states
10:20
could such intercity conflicts be
10:22
managed as internal issues within a
10:24
unified political system. During the
10:27
early dynastic period, it's still
10:29
challenging to make definitive
10:30
statements about religious beliefs, but
10:32
there are clues about how cults were
10:34
organized. In Orok, the central area was
10:37
reorganized with a raised temple on a
10:39
terrace, creating a clear religious
10:41
focus for the city. This arrangement
10:44
reflected the idea that every city had a
10:47
specific deity, a concept that would
10:49
become characteristic of Babylonian
10:52
cities. Early writings used the same
10:54
sign for the city and its deity,
10:57
suggesting a deep connection between the
10:59
two. However, we don't have clear
11:02
evidence of cult leaders being among the
11:04
city's top officials. While the ruler
11:07
was often seen as the highest servant of
11:09
the city's deity, there were signs that
11:11
rulers were becoming more independent
11:13
from religious authorities, leading to
11:16
tensions between the temple and palace.
11:19
In addition to the city deities official
11:21
cult, other temples in each city
11:23
worshiped different gods. But we don't
11:26
know why these temples varied or served
11:28
different worshippers. Personal piety
11:31
was also evident with smaller shrines in
11:34
residential areas containing limestone
11:36
statues. These statues often depicting
11:39
men were likely placed to represent
11:42
donors asking for the deity's protection
11:45
and long life. These private worship
11:48
practices involved lower level deities
11:50
unlike the official city gods and
11:53
reflect a distinction between official
11:55
cults and personal devotion. Early
11:58
dynastic art is challenging to assess.
12:01
Art from the late Oro period and Gemdet
12:03
Naza focused on glorifying the ruler
12:06
making it official art while early
12:08
dynastic art such as prayer statues
12:11
seemed more personal or unofficial.
12:15
The prayer statues, usually abstract and
12:17
geometric, likely reflected personal
12:20
religious practices. The few official
12:22
artworks from later in the period, like
12:25
the stellar of the vultures, depicted
12:27
significant events such as military
12:30
victories. These reliefs followed a
12:32
symbolic style where important figures
12:35
were larger, eyes were exaggerated, and
12:38
deities when represented were even
12:40
taller than the rulers. Temples from
12:43
this time had niches that probably once
12:45
held deity statues, although no examples
12:48
have been found. A list of deity names
12:50
found in the city of Shuropak dating
12:53
back to just before the earliest fully
12:55
legible texts shows an early
12:57
systematization of the divine world.
13:00
This list includes key gods such as
13:02
Anne, Enlil, Inana, Enki, Nana, and Utu,
13:08
suggesting an early theological
13:10
structure that mirrors later religious
13:12
hierarchies.
13:13
It remains unclear whether these deities
13:15
were originally linked to specific
13:17
cities or if they had already been
13:19
categorized based on roles like the
13:21
goddess of love and war or gods of
13:24
water, moon, and sun. The list includes
13:27
over 500 names, many of which remain
13:30
unidentified, making it challenging to
13:33
pinpoint which deities were worshiped in
13:35
specific temples. Later texts suggest
13:38
that religious traditions evolved and
13:40
replaced earlier understandings of the
13:42
gods. Burial practices, particularly
13:45
those in the city of provide another
13:48
perspective on religious beliefs.
13:51
which later became the cult center of
13:53
the moon Godana had a burial ground on
13:56
the southeastern slope of its central
13:57
area from 2,600 to 2000 BCE. The graves
14:02
dug into rubble contained many burial
14:05
goods such as jewelry, weapons, tools,
14:08
and pottery indicating the belief in an
14:11
afterlife.
14:13
Provisions of solid and liquid food were
14:15
placed with the dead, reflecting a
14:17
strong concept of life after death and
14:20
the importance of rituals performed by
14:22
the living to ease the journey of the
14:24
deceased. The cemetery at began with
14:27
17erary complexes known as the royal
14:31
tombs of While only a few of these tombs
14:34
have inscriptions indicating they
14:36
belonged to rulers or their families,
14:38
their incredible wealth supports their
14:41
royal designation.
14:42
Many complexes contained a variety of
14:45
burial gifts, suggesting that entire
14:47
households were buried together. These
14:50
included highranking individuals,
14:52
personal servants, musicians, soldiers,
14:56
and even complete wagons with animals
14:59
and drivers.
15:01
Some musicians were found with their
15:02
fingers still on the strings of liars
15:05
made from precious materials.
15:08
The positioning of the corpses indicates
15:09
that they may have taken poison,
15:11
suggesting they were intended to
15:13
accompany the deceased in the afterlife.
15:16
Such elaborateerary customs appear to
15:18
have been abandoned shortly after this
15:20
period, leaving little written evidence
15:22
to understand them. The lavish burial
15:25
gifts reflect a display of wealth aimed
15:27
at enhancing the deceased's prestige.
15:29
This wealth is most evident in the royal
15:32
tombs, but is also found in private
15:34
tombs, which sometimes contained
15:36
numerous valuable items like jewelry,
15:39
tools, and weapons made from copper or
15:42
bronze. Cylinder seals, which were found
15:44
in about a quarter of the 1,850
15:48
excavated tombs, are significant
15:50
artifacts from this time. These seals
15:53
were essential for identifying
15:54
individuals in economic transactions,
15:57
with each one featuring a unique design.
16:01
By the middle of the third millennium,
16:03
the seals began to include the owner's
16:05
name to improve identification.
16:08
Unlike statues and reliefs which were
16:10
less common, cylinder seals were
16:12
widespread and provide valuable insights
16:15
into the artistic development and
16:17
economic life of the era. They feature a
16:20
variety of illustrations that help
16:22
historians understand the cultural
16:24
context of the time. In early donastic
16:27
art, variability in themes was achieved
16:30
not by a wide range of subjects but by
16:33
exploring a limited number of topics
16:35
with great diversity. One prominent
16:38
theme was the battle between wild and
16:40
domestic animals with lions and bulls as
16:43
central figures. Some designs became
16:46
quite intricate featuring human and
16:48
animal figures intertwined in complex
16:51
arrangements. A notable protective
16:53
figure is the bullman, a creature that
16:56
is human above and bull below. Although
16:59
this figure appears frequently in
17:00
Mesopotamian art, its name and purpose
17:03
remain unknown, though it may relate to
17:06
demons from later periods. The meaning
17:09
of animal contests depicted in the art
17:11
is also unclear. Establishing a direct
17:14
link between the design of seals and the
17:17
social status of their owners is
17:19
challenging as only a few seals have
17:21
personal inscriptions. However, one
17:24
theme that indicates social status is
17:26
the symposium or drinking scene. In
17:30
these depictions, two or more
17:32
individuals sit opposite each other,
17:34
drinking from cups or using tubes to sip
17:37
from a large vessel, likely containing
17:40
beer. They are often attended by
17:42
servants and may be accompanied by
17:44
additional figures dancing or playing
17:46
music. Seals featuring symposium scenes
17:50
are typically crafted from lapis lazuli
17:53
with many found in the royal tombs of
17:55
suggesting a connection between this
17:57
theme and higher social status. The
18:00
description of this period would be
18:02
incomplete without acknowledging
18:04
Babylonia's connections to neighboring
18:06
regions, particularly through long-d
18:08
distanceance trade, as evidenced by the
18:11
diverse materials found in the royal
18:13
tombs of While the origin of gold
18:16
remains unknown, silver and many
18:18
semi-precious stones were sourced from
18:20
the high Zagros mountains to the east.
18:24
Lapis Lazuli, which is only mined in
18:26
Badakshan, northeastern Afghanistan,
18:29
required even greater distance to
18:31
obtain. Notably, beads made of reddish
18:34
brown carnelon with white etchings
18:37
indicate early direct contacts between
18:40
urban civilizations in the Indis Valley
18:43
and Mesopotamia, as this etching
18:46
technique originated there. Perarchical
18:49
discoveries also highlight ties to
18:51
presentday Syria and southeastern
18:54
Anatolia. By the mid3rd millennium
18:57
B.C.E. citystates in Syria had become
19:00
sufficiently complex that they adopted
19:02
Babylonian cune form script believing it
19:05
would help address their administrative
19:07
challenges. Thousands of Cuniform texts
19:10
have been found in the West Syrian city
19:12
of Ela and elsewhere which significantly
19:15
influenced Babylonian culture. Initially
19:18
ununiform was primarily used for
19:20
recording economic transactions without
19:23
the need to represent the spoken
19:24
language in detail. However, as Semitic
19:28
groups in Babylonia and Syria began
19:30
using ununiform to write their own
19:32
languages, a shift occurred. Unlike
19:35
Sumerian, which used word signs to
19:38
represent sounds and meanings, Semitic
19:40
languages required modifications to the
19:43
word stems for tense and person. This
19:46
led to a more phonetic use of the
19:48
writing system. As Sumerian speakers
19:51
observed the Semitic usage, they adopted
19:53
these practices to fully express their
19:55
own language in writing. This
19:57
development allowed for the detailed
19:59
recording of Sumerian literary,
20:01
historical, and religious texts, marking
20:04
a significant transition from oral
20:06
tradition to a high literary culture in
20:09
Babylonian civilization.
20:12
In the mid-3rd millennium, new political
20:14
structures were tested as cities faced
20:17
ongoing conflicts like the one between
20:19
Lagash and Umma. Cities often became
20:23
involved in endless wars. One common
20:26
solution was to expand territories by
20:28
conquering neighboring cities. While
20:31
this was likely motivated by personal
20:33
ambition, it addressed pressing issues.
20:37
However, these conquests typically ended
20:39
with the death of the ruler. Despite
20:41
their short-lived nature, these efforts
20:44
set the stage for the first unification
20:46
of Babylonia under Sargon, founder of
20:49
the Acadian dynasty, which lasted for
20:51
generations.
20:57
[Music]