Author : Wahid Ahmad
During the last Ice Age, between one hundred thousand and thirty thousand years
ago, anatomically modern humans migrated out of Africa into Europe, where they
encountered the indigenous Neanderthals. Neanderthal populations began to
decline around sixty thousand years ago and had largely disappeared by forty
thousand years ago.
This period was marked by dramatic climate
fluctuations in Europe, swinging between freezing Heinrich Events and warmer
interstadial periods.
During the cold spells, early human species were
pushed out of northern Europe, retreating to southern refuges like the Iberian
Peninsula. When the climate warmed, they returned to the north. Over time,
these humans developed more advanced tools, created intricate ornaments and
ritual objects, and strengthened their social networks, signifying a shift from
Middle to Upper Paleolithic cultures.
In Europe, Upper Paleolithic cultures, such as the
Aurignacian, are generally associated with modern humans, whereas Neanderthals
are linked to Middle Paleolithic cultures. The transition from Middle to Upper
Paleolithic industries is considered one of the most significant milestones in
prehistory.
This change is analyzed in two ways: biological
change, focusing on the physical and genetic differences between Neanderthals
and modern humans, and cultural change, examining advancements in tools and
artifacts.
Traditionally, archaeologists viewed this shift as
a sudden leap, with new technologies and behaviors appearing abruptly around
forty thousand years ago. However, it remains unclear whether these changes
were primarily driven by sudden climatic shifts that tested human survival
skills.
Some believe that climate change played a central
role in the Neanderthals' extinction. It may have gradually worn down their
populations during colder periods or triggered a sudden collapse during a
particularly harsh Heinrich Event around forty-eight thousand years ago. Others
argue that climate alone cannot explain their demise, as Neanderthals had
previously endured similar fluctuations. Alternative explanations include
conflict or displacement by modern humans or the environmental aftermath of the
Campanian Ignimbrite volcanic eruption around forty thousand years ago.
This volcanic eruption, one of the largest in Europe’s
history, likely caused a “volcanic winter” that worsened conditions during an
already cold period. Some theories suggest that this event forced Neanderthals
out of key regions or created conditions that favored the spread of modern
humans.
Scientists are now better equipped to investigate such events thanks to the
discovery of microscopic volcanic ash particles, or crypto-tephra, which
provide precise time markers to synchronize cultural and environmental records.
While uncertainties remain, these advances are shedding light on how climatic
and environmental factors intersected with human history to shape the
prehistoric world.
Forty thousand years ago, the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption struck southern
Italy near the Bay of Naples.
This super-eruption is one of the most powerful in the Northern Hemisphere over
the last two hundred thousand years. The eruption originated from the Phlegrean
Fields, a massive supervolcanic caldera near the Bay of Naples in southern
Italy. This geologically active region is characterized by numerous craters,
hot springs, and fumaroles, and it has been a site of significant volcanic
activity for hundreds of thousands of years.
The Campanian Ignimbrite eruption released vast amounts of volcanic ash,
pumice, and gases into the atmosphere, reshaping both the regional and global
climate. Its environmental consequences are evident in archaeological records
from Southern and Eastern Europe, showing its influence on hunter-gatherer
lifeways.
During the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption, Europe experienced a period of
shifting cultures and populations. The warmer climate during the Hengelo
Interstadial—a brief warm period that lasted from forty-one thousand to
thirty-eight thousand years ago—helped human groups survive and thrive. They
developed better tools, ate a wider variety of foods, and moved across vast
areas with diverse environments, adapting well to their surroundings.
The Campanian Ignimbrite eruption unfolded in two dramatic stages. The first
stage was an ultra-explosive phase, where volcanic ash, gases, and rock
fragments were blasted into the atmosphere, forming a towering column that
reached up to forty-four kilometers high.
In the second stage, the ground around the volcanic vent collapsed, creating a
massive caldera, or volcanic crater. This collapse triggered pyroclastic
flows—fast-moving avalanches of superheated gas, ash, and volcanic debris that
sped across the land at hundreds of kilometers per hour, scorching everything
in their path. These flows extended as far as eighty kilometers from the
eruption site, devastating the surrounding region.
The eruption's impact extended far beyond the local area. The ash and debris
ejected during the event spread over an astonishing area of at least five
million square kilometers, blanketing parts of Europe, the Mediterranean, and
beyond.
The eruption had widespread environmental and cultural impacts, especially in
the Greater Mediterranean region, covering areas like southern Italy,
southeastern Europe, parts of Anatolia, and the East European Plain. The
eruption’s sulfur emissions amplified atmospheric effects, likely causing a
"volcanic winter" with severe ecological disruptions.
The Campanian Ignimbrite eruption coincided with several important events in
Earth’s history. It happened during a major cooling period known as Heinrich
Event Four, when vast amounts of icebergs broke off into the North Atlantic,
disrupting ocean currents and cooling the climate. At the same time, Earth’s
magnetic field temporarily weakened, an event known as the Laschamp excursion.
These connections were established by studying volcanic ash layers (called
tephra) found in Greenland ice cores and using precise dating techniques, which
confirmed the eruption occurred around forty thousand years ago.
The eruption caused profound climatic effects by releasing an enormous amount
of sulfur gas into the atmosphere—up to two quadrillion grams. Once in the
stratosphere, these sulfur gases formed aerosols, tiny particles that reflect
sunlight away from Earth, causing global temperatures to drop. Scientists
estimate that this event triggered a temperature decline of three to four
degrees, with cooling effects lasting two to three years.
But the eruption’s impact didn’t stop with short-term cooling. It coincided
with a highly unstable period during the Last Glacial Period, amplifying
ongoing climate disruptions. The sulfur aerosols and ash from the eruption
likely caused a prolonged “volcanic winter,” a period of extreme cold that
persisted for decades or even centuries. This harsh climate made survival more
challenging for ecosystems and human populations across the Northern
Hemisphere.
While the ashfall primarily blanketed areas close to the eruption, its climatic
effects were felt far beyond, particularly in Europe and Asia. The cooling,
combined with the pre-existing glacial conditions, likely disrupted food
chains, habitats, and human migration patterns. The eruption remains a striking
example of how volcanic activity can influence both local landscapes and the
global climate for centuries.
The impact Campanian Ignimbrite eruption was particularly harsh in the already
cold and fragile glacial environment. The volcanic winter due to the eruption
was magnified because the Earth was already in a glacial period.
In large parts of Europe and the Mediterranean, this cooling caused ecosystems
to drastically change. Forests may have shrunk, grasslands expanded, and many
species of plants and animals struggled to survive. For humans, these
environmental changes could have been devastating, forcing some groups to
abandon their homes and adapt to new survival strategies.
The Ignimbrite eruption didn’t just affect the land and climate—it also
disrupted the ocean and atmosphere systems. This created long-lasting
environmental shifts that likely influenced where and how ancient human
populations lived. In regions like Iberia (which is modern-day Spain and
Portugal), archaeological evidence suggests that these changes were
particularly severe.
The eruption is not just a monumental volcanic event—it’s a crucial marker in
archaeology. Its widespread ash deposits, found across Western Eurasia, help
scientists understand ancient timelines. These layers, called tephra, are like
timestamps in the earth, sealing archaeological sites and separating earlier
cultures from later ones.
For example, in southern Italy, the volcanic deposits include two main parts, a
lower layer of Plinian pumice (which is light volcanic rock from explosive
eruptions) and an upper layer of ignimbrite (solidified material from
pyroclastic flows). Together, these layers separate early Upper Paleolithic
cultures, like those with "Aurignacian-like" tools, from later
Gravettian cultures with different tool-making styles. In Eastern Europe, the
Campanian Ignimbrite ash is identified by its unique chemical makeup, making it
a reliable marker for archaeologists.
In Europe, the Upper Paleolithic cultures appear after the Campanian Ignimbrite
eruption. However, some archaeological evidence suggests that these Upper
Paleolithic cultures could be older than forty thousand years.
Neanderthals are known to have lived in Europe after the eruption, particularly
in the Iberian Peninsula, but the end of Middle Paleolithic industries at
certain Eastern European sites occurred well before the eruption.
In Italy, several sites show that modern humans were present before this
eruption, as Upper Paleolithic deposits are found below its ash layer.
In the southern Balkans, like Montenegro and Greece, the eruption covers middle
Palaeolithic layers, but in other areas like Bulgaria, Serbia, and Macedonia,
it overlaps with early Upper Paleolithic layers, suggesting modern humans were
already present before the eruption.
Early Upper Paleolithic layers in Russia are found below or within the
Campanian Ignimbrite ash, supporting the idea that modern humans were already
in central Russia before the eruption.
The Campanian Ignimbrite ash has been traced as far as Libya, helping to link
Paleolithic records between Europe and Africa. At Haua Fteah Cave in Libya, the
Campanian Ignimbrite appears above Middle Paleolithic industries and modern
human remains, showing humans were present before the eruption.
Early modern humans were also present in Morocco over one hundred thousand
years ago, and in Egypt, they lived well before the Campanian Ignimbrite
eruption, with no signs of the eruption impacting their activities.
Tracing the Campanian Ignimbrite ash at various sites in Eastern Europe has
provided a reference point for understanding the timing of modern human
industries and migrations. Some sites recorded Aurignacian-type industries much
earlier than others.
New dating techniques are revealing that modern humans were in parts of Europe
earlier than previously thought, and using the Campanian Ignimbrite ash as a
reference helps confirm these findings, providing a reliable timeline for human
migrations and cultural developments across Europe and Africa.
The transition from Middle to Upper Paleolithic cultures began before the
eruption, both in North Africa and Europe. This suggests that neither the
eruption nor the cold period during Heinrich Event 4 were the main causes of
cultural changes, population movements, or Neanderthal extinction in Northern
and Eastern Europe.
Neanderthals and early modern humans were likely more resilient to
environmental crises than previously believed. A study of Neanderthal
mitochondrial DNA suggests that Neanderthal populations in Eastern Europe
continued until their extinction, likely long before the eruption.
The impact of the eruption varied depending on proximity to the volcanic
source. Sites near Campi Flegrei, like Serino, were heavily impacted, with a
thick Campanian Ignimbrite ash layer capping early Aurignacian deposits and no
evidence of reoccupation.
However, deposits found farther from the eruption source suggest less severe
effects, with no evidence of widespread, long-term impacts on human
populations.
The evidence suggests that Neanderthal extinction in Europe wasn’t directly
linked to the eruption. Continuous records of human occupation during the
Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition raise doubts about the extent of cooling
effects from HE4 on Neanderthal extinction.
Modern humans were already widespread in Europe before the eruption, meaning
that Neanderthals and modern humans interacted before forty thousand years
years ago. Modern humans, with their small populations and high mobility, were
likely a greater threat to Neanderthals than the eruption or climate cooling,
ultimately leading to the Neanderthals' extinction.
While the extinction of Neanderthals is difficult to be attributed to the
eruption. Some human groups might have found ways to adapt, while others
couldn’t cope with the extreme conditions.
This could have created situations where certain groups of early humans gained
advantages over others, shaping the course of human evolution and migration.
For example, groups that developed better tools or found ways to use scarce
resources more effectively may have been more likely to survive and spread.
The combined effects of the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption and the harsh climate
of Heinrich Event 4 significantly impacted Palaeolithic people in Western
Eurasia. The volcanic eruption, along with the cooling climate, forced humans
to adapt, influencing their movement, settlement patterns, and cultural
development.
In areas directly affected by volcanic fallout, like the Mediterranean and
parts of Eastern Europe, many human settlements were abandoned. These
disruptions suggest that the eruption caused a major shift in how people lived,
with new patterns of land use emerging when humans returned, even though
cultural practices may not have changed drastically.
Human mobility was also influenced by the environmental changes. During this
time, the availability of habitable land decreased by up to thirty percent,
which likely led to shifts in population distribution and new settlement
strategies.
In regions like Turkey and the Caucasus, evidence points to changes in
habitation, suggesting that the cooling from the eruption and climatic shifts
were felt over a wide area. These changes would have altered how
hunter-gatherer societies moved, lived, and interacted, as they adapted to the
challenging environmental conditions.
The eruption and cooling also had a profound impact on technology and culture.
As resources became scarcer, people developed more efficient tools and new
technologies to cope with the changing environment. Tools became smaller, more
precise, and often made from a wider range of materials, such as bone and
antler.
There was also an increase in the use of composite tools, like hafted stone
tools, and a growing interest in personal adornment and art, signaling cultural
shifts. These innovations were a direct response to the stress caused by
volcanic eruption and climate change, allowing humans to adapt to new
challenges.
Environmental crises played a significant role in reshaping societal structures
and ideologies. Human displacement was a predictable outcome, as groups moved
away from heavily impacted regions to seek better living conditions.
This movement led to two major regional consequences, depopulation in some
areas and crowding in others. Depopulation resulted from uninhabitable
conditions while crowding occurred in less affected or fringe areas,
intensifying social pressures and fostering innovative behaviors within and
between groups.
The displacement forced human groups to adapt to unfamiliar landscapes,
triggering both challenges and opportunities. Socially constructed cognition,
which links specific locations to meaning and association, played a critical
role in this adaptation.
This process heightened both social fragility and resilience. Increased
population densities, particularly in crowded settings, fostered intensified
social interactions. As a result, cultural expressions like personal adornment
and symbolic practices gained importance, helping individuals and groups
establish identities and maintain cohesion under challenging circumstances.
Art and symbolic expression were adaptive responses to the pressures of
displacement and crowding. Items like pendants and beads became more socially
significant, reflecting the need for identity formation and intergroup
communication.
Image-making, often viewed as a hallmark of "modern" behaviour, was
instead a response to sociogenic factors such as heightened social networking
needs and increased population density. Art served practical functions,
including cultural transmission and fostering collective emotions during
periods of stress.
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The crisis caused widespread
population displacement, creating a mosaic of depopulated and overcrowded
regions. These demographic changes altered social dynamics, reducing group
sizes in some areas while increasing density in others. Such shifts imposed
cognitive and social stresses, leading to the evolution of new behaviors and
interactions. These challenges likely drove innovation in communication,
cooperation, and social structures.
While the abrupt environmental
changes were challenging, they also acted as catalysts for societal innovation.
The crisis accelerated the adoption of new behaviors and tools, some of which
became foundational for later Upper Paleolithic traditions. This period marked
a shift toward more complex societal structures, driven by the need for
flexibility and resilience in the face of adversity.
The crisis prompted a form of
selection at the population and behavioural levels, where successful
innovations enhanced survival. Behaviours promoting mutual benefits and
reciprocal relationships were more likely to succeed. Conversely, groups or behaviours
that failed to adapt effectively disappeared from the archaeological record.
This selective process underscores the evolutionary significance of cooperation
and adaptability.
Under sustained stress, innovation and
flexibility became paramount. Women and young adults emerged as pivotal social
drivers, shaping the division of labour and fostering adaptive strategies.
Their roles in the evolutionary trajectory of Palaeolithic societies highlight
the importance of inclusive contributions to resilience and survival during
times of profound environmental and societal change.
The resilience of human societies in
the face of environmental crises is a key consideration. Although the crisis
imposed significant pressures, humans displayed remarkable adaptability. While
such catastrophes often have short-term impacts, humans' inherent ability to
adapt ensured survival, even if selectively. The crisis accelerated ongoing
innovations, favoring resilient groups and leading to significant cultural
shifts.
The crisis caused by the twin events
of ignimbrite eruption and Heinrich Event Four acted as a strong selective
pressure, advancing human societies through "descent with rapid
modification." Maladaptive and rigid groups were disadvantaged, while
innovative and flexible ones thrived. This resilience is evident in the
transition from Middle Paleolithic groups to new cultural expressions like the
Late Mousterian and Aurignacian traditions. These shifts emerged after a period
of repopulation and adaptation.
Comparisons to other volcanic events,
like the Toba super-eruption (which happened around seventy four thousand years
ago) and the Laacher See eruption (around thirteen thousand years ago), reveal
differences in impacts. The Toba eruption’s effects on human populations remain
debated, as evidence suggests regional persistence despite its magnitude. In
contrast, the Laacher See eruption in western Germany triggered widespread
demographic and cultural changes, including technological innovations and
regional depopulation.
The environmental and climatic
contexts of eruptions influence their impacts. For example, the Campanian
Ignimbrite eruption occurred in a glacial period with widespread ashfall over
land, affecting ecosystems and human groups differently than equatorial
eruptions like Toba. These conditions led to significant disruptions, including
population relocation, technological shifts, and cultural reorganization.
Overall, these events underscore the
resilience of human societies. Despite environmental challenges, humans adapted
through innovation, social reorganization, and cultural evolution. These
crises, while disruptive, often served as catalysts for long-term progress and
transformation in human history.
Current hunter-gatherer groups offer
limited insights since their environmental and cultural conditions differ
significantly from those of the Last Glacial Period. However, studies from
regions like Southeast Asia and Siberia provide clues about how volcanic events
affected early societies.
Catastrophic events like volcanic
eruptions often remain in collective memory for thousands of years. For
example, Aboriginal stories of Mount Gambier and legends from Papua New Guinea
recall such events in remarkable detail. These memories highlight the long-term
cognitive impacts of disasters, which may also have archaeological significance
in Paleolithic studies.
Success in adapting to environmental changes often depends on resource
diversification rather than inherent superiority. During the crises some groups
may have thrived by adopting more flexible subsistence strategies. This
challenges simple models of population replacement and emphasizes the
importance of adaptation.
Cultural changes during this period were more about local adaptation than
sudden migrations or colonizations. Environmental pressures, like the crises
event, accelerated the evolution of existing cultural traits within Middle
Paleolithic societies, leading to gradual transitions rather than abrupt
shifts.
The event acted as a catalyst,
bringing out cultural traits that were already present. Under stress, these
traits became more significant, leading to the diversification and
specialization of traditions like the Mousterian. This process reflects
"change within continuity" rather than abrupt transitions.
The crises may have influenced human
evolution by causing population bottlenecks and genetic mixing. While it might
have indirectly impacted anatomical changes, its precise role remains unclear
and requires further research.
In summary, the erruption event
prompted gradual cultural and biological evolution by acting as a stressor and
catalyst for change. Its effects were complex, challenging simplistic theories
of abrupt replacements or migrations.