Author : Wahid Ahmad
Introduction
to Neanderthals
As we conclude this journey into the story of the last
Neanderthals, let us pause to imagine that pivotal moment in history—the last
time modern humans encountered their Neanderthal counterparts. What did they
think of each other? Did they exchange ideas, tools, or even a shared sense of
awe at their world? These encounters were not merely the meeting of two species
but the merging of destinies, leaving traces of Neanderthal DNA in many of us
today.
Neanderthal remains were first
discovered in the early 19th century, but their significance went unrecognized
until the 1856 discovery of a skeleton in Germany's Neander Valley. Initially,
their unusual anatomy was thought to result from disease, and their status as
ancient humans was only accepted when more similar skeletons were found
alongside tools and extinct animal bones.
Current estimates suggest the
divergence of the last common ancestor of humans and Neanderthals occurred
around five hundred thousand to seven hundred thousand years ago, primarily
based on nuclear DNA analysis. Denisovans, another hominin from Asia, likely
split from this lineage around six hundred thousand years ago, with the
divergence likely occurring in Asia.
Homo heidelbergensis is commonly
regarded as the last common ancestor of Neanderthals, Denisovans, and modern
humans. This species had a wide geographical distribution, ranging from Africa
to Eurasia, during a time period spanning approximately nine hundred thousand
to three hundred thousand years ago. However, some researchers propose Homo
antecessor, a species represented by approximately eight hundred
thousand-year-old fossils from Gran Dolina in Spain, as an alternative last
common ancestor.
These debates reflect the complexities and
ongoing discoveries in the study of human evolution. Modern humans lived in
Africa, while Neanderthals settled in Eurasia. Modern humans likely moved into
the Levant or West Asia much earlier than they spread across the rest of
Eurasia, while Neanderthals stayed in Eurasia.
The fossils dating between two
hundred thousand and one hundred thousand years ago showing clear Neanderthal
features. By around seventy thousand years ago, Neanderthals had fully
developed their unique anatomy, referred to as "classic
Neanderthals."
Neanderthals disappeared
approximately between thirty and forty thousand years ago, shortly after modern
humans arrived in Europe around forty thousand years ago.
Neanderthals possessed a variety
of unique anatomical features, including distinct cranial, dental, and
postcranial characteristics.
The Neanderthal face was marked
by a heavy, double-arched brow ridge, large rounded eye sockets, and a broad
nasal opening. Their midface projected forward, and the cheekbones were angled
and inflated. Internally, Neanderthals had large maxillary sinuses, and their
frontal sinuses expanded to fill most of the brow ridge. Their lower jaw
receded, and they lacked a protruding chin, with a noticeable gap between their
lower wisdom teeth and the vertical branch of the jaw.
Neanderthal back teeth were
similar in size to modern humans, but their front teeth, especially the
incisors, were larger. Their dental wear patterns were also distinctive, with
the front teeth being more worn down than the back ones, possibly from using
teeth as tools.
Neanderthals' large nasal
openings have been linked to cold-climate adaptation. These features may have
helped warm and humidify the air they breathed or dissipate heat. Some interpretations
suggest that their facial characteristics resulted from mechanical stress, such
as using their teeth for activities beyond chewing. Alternatively, it’s been
proposed that their unique morphology was driven by genetic drift or
chance-based evolutionary processes.
The Neanderthal skull has several
distinctive features. It is flat and elongated when viewed from the side and
rounded when viewed from the back. The occipital region (back of the skull)
projects backward, forming a structure known as the "occipital bun."
This trait, along with differences in the temporal bone and bony labyrinth of
the inner ear, sets Neanderthals apart from modern humans. Their brain size
averaged about 1,520 cubic centimeters, larger than that of modern humans, though
their relative brain size was smaller due to their greater body mass.
The Neanderthal skeleton is
robust, with features such as curved femurs and radii, thick bones, and strong
muscle and ligament markings. This muscular build suggests they were physically
strong. They were shorter than early modern humans, with males averaging around
169 centimeters and females around 160 centimeters.
Their body mass averaged 78 kilograms for males and
66 kilograms for females. Neanderthal ribcages were broad and deep at the
bottom and narrow at the top, and their limbs were relatively short with large
articular ends, which could be adaptations to cold climates. These body
proportions may have helped them conserve heat.
Although their body form suggests adaptations for
cold environments, studies indicate that Neanderthals would not have been able
to survive in high-latitude habitats without shelter and clothing.
Neanderthal children grew faster than modern
humans, and their populations exhibited a high mortality rate, especially among
adolescents and prime-age adults.
This could be linked to high levels of stress and
trauma, often observed in Neanderthal skeletons, particularly in the head and
neck.
These injuries are thought to be a result of
hunting large prey, and some may have been due to interpersonal aggression.
Many of the injuries show signs of healing,
suggesting Neanderthals exhibited compassion by caring for injured members,
enabling their survival.
Additionally, Neanderthal remains indicate elevated
developmental stress, pointing to hardships faced during childhood and
throughout life.
Neanderthals primarily relied on meat, including
animals like bison, wild cattle, reindeer, and horses, among others. Sites in
the Mediterranean region show they also ate shellfish, birds, and marine
mammals.
Though plant remains are rarely found, this is
likely due to poor preservation rather than their absence in the diet. Studies
of Neanderthal bones reveal that they had a diet rich in herbivore meat,
similar to top predators.
Isotopic
analysis suggests they hunted very large animals, like mammoths or
rhinoceroses, more than previously thought. There is less evidence of marine
food in their diets compared to modern humans of the Upper Paleolithic.
The question of whether Neanderthals had symbolic
thought and language is still debated. Unlike modern humans, Neanderthal sites
show little evidence of symbolic objects like art or personal ornaments. This
has led some to argue that Neanderthals lacked cognitive abilities and
language.
However, the archaeological record may not fully
capture Neanderthal behavior. There is some evidence, such as the use of ochre
and manganese crayons and the burial of individuals, which suggests they may
have had some form of symbolic thought.
Yet, burial practices and grave goods are very rare
in Neanderthal sites, making it difficult to draw firm conclusions about their
symbolic capacities.
Neanderthals were well-suited to live in Western
Eurasia, having been present in the region for at least one hundred fifty
thousand years, well before the onset of the last Ice Age.
Geographically, they ranged across Europe, from
Iberia to Russia and from the Mediterranean to Northern Europe.
Southern European peninsulas likely served as
refuges during glacial periods, helping them survive extreme climates when
northern regions became uninhabitable.
Neanderthals also lived beyond Europe, with
evidence of their presence in the Near East, Western Asia, Uzbekistan, and even
Siberia.
The Teshik-Tash Cave in Uzbekistan is one of the
most important sites for Neanderthal fossils in Central Asia. A Neanderthal
child's partial skeleton was found in Teshik-Tash Cave, along with associated
tools and animal remains. The site dates back approximately fifty thousand
years.
Around one hundred forty-five thousand years ago,
Neanderthals were mainly found in Western Europe, parts of Italy, and the
Mediterranean.
As the climate warmed around one hundred thirty
thousand years ago, their range expanded into northern and parts of Eastern
Europe.
The warm period of the Eemian (about one hundred
twenty-one thousand years ago) saw their range reach its largest size, peaking
at seven point three million square kilometers. However, when the climate
cooled, their range shrank again, especially in northern regions.
During the early and middle periods of the
Weichselian Ice Age (around one hundred fifteen thousand to thirty thousand
years ago), Neanderthals were widely distributed across southern and western
Europe but more sporadically in Central Europe.
The rugged Alps and Carpathians created natural
barriers, making it difficult for Neanderthals to cross these regions.
They likely ventured into Central Europe during
warmer climatic phases, with the Odra Valley being a key route through the
Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains.
Neanderthal activity has been found in sites across
Poland, Germany, and the Czech Republic, often in rock shelters, caves, and
open-air locations.
Notable sites like Zwolen, Königsaue, and Hallera
Avenue offer insights into Neanderthal life.
Hallera Avenue in Wrocław, Poland, reveals evidence
of Neanderthal occupation during warmer periods.
By studying animal remains from these sites, such
as bison, horses, mammoths, and rhinoceroses, scientists can determine the
temperature conditions during Neanderthal occupation.
The Hallera Avenue site
shows evidence of Neanderthal habitation during two warm phases: around 115,000
to 74,000 years ago and around 59,000 years ago. These periods, Oxygen Isotope
Stages 5 and 3, had average annual temperatures of 6 to 7°C, indicating a mild
climate.
From about 116,000 to
71,000 years ago, there were cycles of climate warming and cooling, which
caused Neanderthals' range to expand and contract. Studies show that the most
suitable environment for Neanderthals during the warmer Eemian period was in
the Mediterranean, while areas like mountain ranges and plains were less
suitable. However, after about 65,000 years ago, their range became more
limited, mostly staying in Western Europe, the Iberian Peninsula, and parts of
Italy.
By around 44,000 to
40,000 years ago, Neanderthal populations had become isolated in smaller
regions, resulting in a significant population decline. By around 30,000 to
42,000 years ago, near the time Neanderthals went extinct; their range had
drastically reduced to just 2.7 million km².
Genetic data confirms
that Neanderthals had small populations, low genetic diversity, and high
mortality rates. This made them vulnerable to inbreeding and reduced their
overall fitness compared to humans, possibly by as much as 40%. Research on
their mitochondrial DNA shows that late Neanderthal populations were spread
across West Asia, Southern Europe, and Western Europe.
Neanderthals in the
Middle East and Southern Europe showed more genetic diversity, while those in
Western Europe had less genetic variation, suggesting that Northern European
populations went extinct before 48,000 years ago, and the region was later
recolonized by Neanderthals from the Middle East.
Although climate change
likely played a role in their extinction, competition with modern humans (Homo
sapiens) may have also been a significant factor. Neanderthals and humans had
similar environmental preferences, which suggests that competition for
resources could have contributed to their decline. Some scientists even propose
that modern humans might have directly displaced Neanderthals, although this
idea is debated. Fossil evidence shows that Neanderthals lived in warmer
environments, while humans lived in colder, Arctic regions, suggesting that
direct competition between the two species over resources may have been
limited.
The
mitochondrial DNA of late Neanderthals reveals new insights into their genetic
diversity. Five specimens were compared with earlier Neanderthals from
different regions.
The Les Cottés specimen in France showed genetic connections to
Neanderthals from regions like Siberia’s Denisova Cave, suggesting a more
interconnected gene pool rather than distinct eastern and western groups.
Mezmaiskaya 2 from the Caucasus Mountains also showed genetic links with
other late Neanderthals, indicating genetic cohesion despite geographic spread.
A genetic tree comparing older specimens, such as the Altai Neanderthal
(about one hundred twenty thousand years ago) and the Vindija Neanderthals
(around forty-five thousand years ago), showed all Neanderthals forming a
single group. Older specimens branched off first, while late Neanderthals
grouped together.
Neanderthals in regions like the Caucasus may have been replaced by
populations from Western Europe during extreme climatic changes, leading to
local extinctions and re-colonization.
Late Neanderthals separated from the Altai Neanderthal around one
hundred fifty thousand years ago and from the Vindija Neanderthal around
seventy thousand years ago. Neanderthals and Denisovans diverged about four
hundred thousand years ago, and their split from modern humans occurred
approximately five hundred thirty thousand years ago. This timeline clarifies
Neanderthal evolutionary history.
One of the major challenges in studying last Neanderthals is obtaining reliable
dates for Neanderthal remains and associated artefacts. Early radiocarbon
dating methods often underestimated the ages of samples, leading to inaccurate
conclusions about when Neanderthals lived. Advanced techniques like Accelerator
Mass Spectrometry radiocarbon dating, combined with techniques like
ultrafiltration, have corrected many earlier inaccuracies and provided a
clearer picture.
For example, at Mezmaiskaya Cave in Russia, a Neanderthal infant was originally
dated to about twenty-nine thousand years ago, suggesting late survival.
However, newer dating of another Neanderthal from the same site revealed
significantly older dates, as did the reanalysis of cut-marked animal bones
from the same layers.
Similarly, at Zafarraya Cave in Spain, earlier dates placed Neanderthal remains
between thirty-three thousand four hundred and twenty-eight thousand nine
hundred years ago. Subsequent ultrafiltration of these samples showed they were
beyond the limits of radiocarbon dating, indicating they were much older.
The revised timelines for Mezmaiskaya and Zafarraya suggest that Neanderthals
disappeared earlier than previously thought, with no evidence for
late-surviving populations in isolated refuges. Instead, their decline appears
to have coincided with the spread of modern humans across Europe.
The Neanderthal remains from Vindija Cave northern Croatia have long been
considered potentially among the latest surviving Neanderthals.
Two key fossils from Vindija, a jawbone fragment and a piece of skull—were
initially dated to about twenty-nine thousand years old. However, by using
advanced radiocarbon dating techniques, they reassessed the age of the
Neanderthal remains from Vindija's cave.
The research confirmed that the Neanderthal occupation of Vindija Cave occurred
earlier than previously thought, around forty-six thousand to forty-two
thousand years ago, significantly predating earlier estimates of twenty-nine
thousand to twenty-eight thousand and thirty-three thousand to thirty-two thousand
years. These findings indicate that the site was not a last refuge for
Neanderthals but part of their earlier range.
In essence, the Vindija site, once seen as exceptional evidence of Neanderthal
survival and interaction with modern humans, now appears to reflect a more
common issue in archaeology: contamination and mixing of materials from
different periods.
There is a need for caution when using radiocarbon dating to determine the age
of very old human fossil remains. While radiocarbon dating is the most precise
method available, its accuracy diminishes significantly for fossils dating back
to forty-five thousand to forty thousand years ago.
This period is critical as it marks the transition between Neanderthals and
modern humans. Even a small amount of contamination by modern carbon can skew
the results, making fossils appear much younger than they actually are. For
example, just one percent modern contamination can cause an error of over eight
thousand years for fossils around forty-two thousand five hundred years old.
Gibraltar is a small British Overseas Territory located at the southern tip of
the Iberian Peninsula, on the southern coast of Spain. It is positioned at the
entrance of the Mediterranean Sea, where it meets the Atlantic Ocean, known as
the Strait of Gibraltar.
It has a long history of connection with Neanderthals. The first
discovery linking Neanderthals to the area was made in eighteen forty-eight,
when a Neanderthal skull was found at Forbes's Quarry.
Later, in the nineteen twenties, another skull, along with tools made by
Neanderthals, was uncovered at a nearby site called Devil’s Tower. These tools
belong to the Mousterian technology. There are now eight known sites on the
Rock of Gibraltar, a six-kilometer-long and four hundred twenty-six-meter-high
limestone ridge, where Neanderthals lived.
One key site is Gorham’s Cave. Early excavations in the mid-twentieth century found
evidence of Neanderthals through their tools. In nineteen ninety-five,
researchers dated the last use of Neanderthal tools in the cave to about
thirty-two thousand years ago.
Where top layers linked to early modern humans contained tools that came from
two distinct cultural periods, known as the Solutrean and Magdalenian, which
followed the Neanderthals. The deepest layer revealed tools that were
exclusively Mousterian, confirming Neanderthal activity.
Gorham’s Cave in Gibraltar provides valuable insights into the lives of
Neanderthals and their eventual replacement by modern humans. Radiocarbon dates
show that Neanderthals used the cave regularly for over ten thousand years,
from around thirty-three thousand to twenty-three thousand years ago. However,
the most reliable evidence suggests they occupied the site until approximately
twenty-eight thousand years ago.
The cave’s unique structure made it a favorable shelter. Natural light reached
deep inside, and the high ceiling allowed smoke to escape, making it a
practical spot for repeated use. The evidence of hearths along with other
remains shows that Neanderthals brought animals into the cave to butcher and
cook, leaving marks on the bones.
Neanderthals lived in an environment rich in plants and animals. The
surrounding area included sandy plains, woodlands, wetlands, and coastal
environments. This diversity likely helped Neanderthals survive longer in this
region compared to other parts of Europe.
While Neanderthals occupied Gorham’s Cave, modern humans were slowly moving
into nearby areas. Evidence from sites about one hundred kilometers away shows
modern human tools and settlements appearing around thirty-two thousand years
ago. However, the transition from Neanderthals to modern humans in southern
Iberia was not sudden. It was a gradual process, with both groups living in the
region at low population densities for thousands of years. Unlike other parts
of Europe, there is little evidence of direct interaction or cultural exchange
between Neanderthals and modern humans here.
Neanderthals in southern Spain, particularly around areas like Gibraltar, may
have survived longer than previously believed, living alongside modern humans
in certain regions. In southern Iberia (southern Spain and Portugal), Neanderthals
continued to use their traditional tools and lifestyles even after the advanced
tools of modern humans, such as the Aurignacian, spread across northern Europe.
Evidence from several archaeological sites suggests that Neanderthals may have
lived in southern Iberia until about thirty thousand years ago, far later than
their disappearance from northern parts of Europe. These Neanderthal
populations appear to have developed independently in isolated regions, leading
to a unique persistence of their culture and technology. The southern Iberian
environment, with a mix of open, grassy landscapes in the north and more wooded
areas in the south, likely played a role in this extended survival.
The idea that Neanderthals in southern Iberia developed their own distinct
cultural traits, separate from interactions with modern humans in the north,
helps explain their long survival. Archaeological findings, such as Neanderthal
remains and tools in places like Gruta da Oliveira in Portugal, support the
idea that their way of life persisted for thousands of years more than
previously thought.
During the period between 60,000 and
26,000 years ago, leading up to the Last Glacial Maximum, the climate
experienced rapid fluctuations and was harsher than it is today. As the Last
Glacial Maximum began (24,000 to 18,000 years ago), the environment became
cooler, drier, and more stable. In the Mediterranean region, colder periods of
the Late Pleistocene saw annual rainfall reduced by about 400 mm; with winter
temperatures 6–13°C lower than today. However, during warmer phases, rainfall
and temperatures were comparable to modern conditions. In southern Iberia,
vegetation shifted between dry scrub species like Maytenus and Ziziphus during
colder times and trees such as pines, oaks, and olive trees during milder
phases.
The animal remains found in Gorham’s
Cave, including deer, wild goats, horses, and monk seals, show signs of being
hunted and processed by humans. The absence of scavenger damage on the bones
indicates the cave was a key human habitat. Evidence from pollen, animal
studies, and plant remains suggests that the landscape around Gorham’s Cave was
dominated by Mediterranean-like vegetation, featuring a mix of open woodlands
and other habitats. Common plants included stone pine, olive trees, and shrubs
typical of Mediterranean climates, indicating that extreme cooling episodes
were not prolonged in the region.
While the overall climate was
relatively mild, some evidence points to colder winters and greater temperature
fluctuations during the Late Pleistocene. Limpet shells from the cave suggest
sea surface temperatures were cooler, with more pronounced seasonal
differences. Additionally, the presence of animals like shrews and newts
usually found in northern climates supports the idea that Gibraltar acted as a
refuge for species from colder regions. Despite these cold spells,
Mediterranean plants and animals continued to dominate, suggesting that the
region remained relatively warm and habitable.
The average temperatures during this
period were about 1.6 to 1.8 degrees cooler than today. Winters were significantly
colder, by approximately 8 degrees, while summer conditions were similar to the
present day. Annual rainfall was slightly lower, but there were fewer dry
months compared to today, highlighting a semi-humid Mediterranean climate. The
increased temperature differences between seasons suggest the area experienced
more continental-like conditions during the Late Pleistocene.
There seems to be a contradiction
in the story of Neanderthals in southern Iberia: how could warm-loving plants
and animals persist in this region while climate change is believed to have
caused the Neanderthals' extinction? One explanation is that southern Iberia
maintained enough rainfall and moderate conditions to support Neanderthals for
a longer period than other regions. Relatively good rainfall levels might have
helped Neanderthals survive in places like Gorham’s Cave.
However, even in this southern
refuge, there were signs of harsher conditions. For example, rainfall levels
decreased by about 78 milimeters during the period when Neanderthals lived in
the area. Pollen records from marine sediments in the nearby Alboran Sea also
show a significant decline in tree cover between 31,000 and 15,000 years ago,
with the lowest levels occurring around 24,500 years ago. This corresponds to
Heinrich Event 2, a particularly cold and dry period. Geochemical studies
suggest that temperatures in southern Iberia were 4 to 6 degree cooler than
today around this time.
Since Neanderthals are believed
to have relied heavily on forests for food and shelter, the loss of large
forest areas would have made survival difficult. Small pockets of forest, like
those near Gibraltar, may have acted as refuges, but these may not have been
large enough to sustain healthy Neanderthal populations for long. Similar
patterns of extinction due to extreme dryness have been proposed for
Neanderthals in other regions, like the Levant around 45,000 years ago.
Ultimately, the coastal refuges
of southern Iberia might not have been enough to protect Neanderthals from the
increasingly harsh climate. Either these areas became too small to support
viable populations, or the challenges posed by the climate were simply too
great for them to adapt.
The late surviving Neanderthals
sites in Europe show their remains alongside tools from "transitional
industries" that mix older Neanderthal traditions with newer techniques
similar to those of modern humans.
The technological industries used by
the last Neanderthals during the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition provide
significant insights into their adaptation to changing environments and
potential interactions with early modern humans. These industries reflect a
combination of continuity from earlier traditions and innovation in response to
new challenges and influences.
During the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition, Neanderthals displayed a
combination of technological continuity and innovation, adapting to
environmental changes and possibly engaging with early modern humans. Tool
industries such as the Szeletian, Lincombian-Ranisian-Jerzmanowician, Castleperronian,
and Uluzzian reflect both traditional Neanderthal craftsmanship and signs of
technological advancements.
The Szeletian industry, marked by
foliate points, maintained continuity with earlier traditions but also shows
potential for adapting to new cultural influences. The
Lincombian-Ranisian-Jerzmanowician industry, with advanced blade technology,
suggests that Neanderthals may have been influenced by early modern humans,
possibly through interactions.
The Castleperronian industry,
associated with symbolic artifacts like pierced teeth and ivory, raises
questions about whether Neanderthals adopted or independently developed Upper
Paleolithic technologies. The Uluzzian, linked to modern humans, further
complicates the debate about Neanderthal capability and cultural exchange.
The timing of Neanderthal extinction
and modern human arrival varied by region, with Neanderthals in some places
being replaced as early as 44,800 years ago, while in others, such as the
Italy-France border, they persisted until around 41000 years ago. This
variation in timing suggests those Neanderthal behaviours and their responses
to environmental changes and interactions with modern humans were not uniform,
indicating a complex and regionally varied history during this transitional
period.
The appearance of the Aurignacian,
linked to early modern humans, in the south is debated, with evidence
suggesting it may have emerged around 43,000 to 45,000 BP. Some sites, like
Bajondillo, raise the possibility of Neanderthal and modern human cohabitation,
but this remains uncertain. Ongoing research at sites like Gorham's Cave and
Picareiro Cave is expected to provide clearer insights into the timeline of
Neanderthal and modern human interactions, helping to resolve the complexities
surrounding their coexistence in Iberia.
The idea that modern
humans wiped out Neanderthals is an oversimplified view, and it overlooks the
complexity of their interactions. Several hypotheses suggest that competition
played a role in the decline of Neanderthals. Modern humans may have had
several advantages over Neanderthals, such as better clothing and shelter,
improved hunting techniques, and more diverse subsistence strategies.
Additionally, modern
human social structures were likely more complex, with gender divisions of
labor, larger group sizes, and intricate social networks. Demographic factors,
such as higher birth rates and longer lifespans, may have also favored modern
humans. Although archaeological evidence sometimes shows modern human remains
above Neanderthal remains, it does not necessarily indicate that modern humans
actively exterminated Neanderthals. It could simply mean that modern humans
entered these areas after Neanderthals had already left. Ultimately, there is
little direct evidence to suggest that modern humans deliberately wiped out
Neanderthals.
One significant factor
that has been proposed for the extinction of Neanderthals is climate change.
Neanderthals disappeared about 40,000 years ago, and by the time Homo sapiens
arrived in Europe 45,000 years ago, there was only a short overlap. This raises
the question of whether humans were solely responsible for their extinction,
and it suggests that Neanderthals may have already been declining before modern
humans arrived.
Some researchers
believe that the climatic instability during the last Ice Age may have played a
major role in their extinction. The Pleistocene era was characterized by
glacial advances and retreats that drastically altered the European
environment, affecting the availability of resources for Neanderthals.
Climate change could
have caused demographic stress by reducing the carrying capacity of the
ecosystem. During colder periods, like those that occurred in Western Europe
after 50,000 years ago, Neanderthal populations suffered a genetic bottleneck,
leaving them with low genetic diversity. This is supported by studies of
ancient DNA found in the Valdegoba cave in Spain, where the Neanderthals showed
evidence of a dramatic population decline during cold phases.
Further evidence of harsh climatic conditions
is seen in paleoclimate records from Romania, showing cold and dry periods
around 44,000 years ago, leading to year-round permafrost. While some dismiss
the role of climate change due to Neanderthals' ability to survive past cold
periods, others argue that the environment was not uniform across Europe, with
some regions remaining milder.
Finlayson presents an
alternative view, suggesting that Neanderthals were never fully adapted to the
cold. They lived in a variety of habitats, including woodlands and savannahs,
and were under constant stress, never fully recovering from previous
environmental challenges. According to Finlayson, their eventual extinction was
due to their overspecialization in hunting large mammals within a limited range
of habitats, their low tolerance for environmental changes, and their
fragmented populations.
These factors led to low colonization success
and high extinction rates, making them vulnerable to the environmental shifts
of the Late Pleistocene, which led to the loss of ecosystems that could support
them.
Another factor in the
Neanderthal extinction theory is the Campanian Ignimbrite Eruption around
39,000 years ago, a volcanic eruption that might have had a severe impact on
the environment. Evidence suggests that this event led to a reduction in plant
pollens and possibly affected the animals that Neanderthals relied on for food.
As we close our exploration of
the last Neanderthals, we are reminded of their remarkable journey through
time. These resilient humans thrived in challenging environments, showcasing
advanced tools, art, and even symbolic thought—once believed to be uniquely
modern traits. Yet, as climate shifts and interactions with our own species
reshaped their world, their legacy became part of ours. Today, traces of
Neanderthal DNA live on in many of us, a silent testament to a shared history
that connects us across millennia. Their story is not just about extinction,
but adaptation, innovation, and survival against the odds.
In remembering the Neanderthals, we gain deeper insights into what it means to be human—a reflection of resilience, creativity, and interconnectedness. Thank you for joining us on this journey into the past. Until next time, stay curious and keep exploring."