Author : Wahid Ahmad
The arrival and
continuity of Europe's first hominin populations raise two key questions: When
did they arrive? and How stable was their presence? These are fundamentally
demographic issues related to migration and population stability.
There is general agreement
that humans reached Western Europe between 1.5 and 1.4 million years ago. Some
researchers suggest an earlier entry around 1.8 million years ago, while others
argue for a later arrival, around 900,000 years ago, influenced by climate
changes.
The demographic history
of the Lower Palaeolithic can be divided into two phases. During the Early
Pleistocene, human populations were small and sporadic. Around 600,000 years
ago, population density and distribution increased, accompanied by biological
and cultural changes. However, settlements still remained discontinuous and
clustered, with small, isolated communities persisting even after this period.
This pattern is
explained by a stable ‘source’ populations thriving in favourable environments,
while ‘sink’ populations struggled to survive in harsher regions. In a broader
Eurasian context, Europe itself functioned as a demographic ‘sink’, where
populations were more vulnerable to environmental pressures and local
extinctions.
Europe is not a
distinct continent but a western peninsula of Eurasia,
bordered by the Atlantic, Arctic, and Mediterranean. Migration in and out of
Europe was common, making rigid geographic definitions unhelpful. Throughout
the Pleistocene, climate and geography shaped human occupation. Glacial
cycles altered sea levels, exposing and submerging land, while ice
sheets limited northern expansion. Europe's varied topography—mountains,
plains, rivers, and coastlines—further influenced human movement and survival.
These environmental factors played a crucial role in shaping Palaeolithic
populations.
The European Lower
Palaeolithic lasted from about 1.8 million to 300,000 years ago. It began with
early hominin migrations from Africa into Europe and ended with the transition
to the Middle Palaeolithic. This period saw significant climatic changes,
including shifts in glacial and interglacial cycles, which influenced human
settlement patterns.
The success of
early human settlements depended on their ability to adapt to climate changes
and compete with predators like large felids and hyenas. While some view early
humans as passive scavengers, others suggest they were active hunters. Climate
shifts played a crucial role in their survival, with human presence likely
fluctuating based on environmental conditions.
Hominin populations in
Europe were unstable, with periods of occupation followed by population decline
or disappearance. Early humans, such as Homo antecessor, were present
around 1 million years ago. By the Middle Pleistocene, around 500,000 years
ago, larger-brained Homo heidelbergensis appeared, showing
advancements in tool-making and adaptation to changing environments.
Europe's geography and
climate played a crucial role in human survival. Ice ages limited where
populations could live, and migration into and out of the continent was common.
Europe functioned as a demographic "sink," meaning it relied on
incoming populations to sustain itself rather than having a continuous
settlement.
This period set the
stage for later human evolution, influencing the development of Neanderthals
and shaping early human adaptation strategies.
Homo erectus migrated
from Africa to Eurasia over 2 million years ago. Fossil and tool evidence shows
they reached sites like Shangchen, China around 2.1 million years ago, Dmanisi,
Georgia by 1.85 million years ago, and Sangiran, Java arround 1.6 to 1.5 million
years ago. Their movement was influenced by population growth, diet changes,
and climate shifts.
The Dmanisi site in
Georgia, with fossils of at least five individuals 1.77 million years ago,
suggests a sustained population but no clear link to early Europeans. The first
confirmed hominin presence in Europe appears much later, around 1.8 to 1.3 million
years ago, in sites like Pirro Nord in Italy and Alto de las Picarazas in Spain.
Most early European sites date between 1.4 to 1.2 million years ago, with tools
primarily of the Mode 1 type. Human fossils are rare, found mainly in Spain.
During the Early Pleistocene
(around 1.7 to 0.8 million years ago), human populations in Europe were small,
scattered, and often temporary. Archaeological evidence suggests that early
humans were present but did not establish large, continuous settlements. There
are only about 23 known sites from this period, meaning there was roughly one
site every 40,000 years, a very low frequency.
Most of these sites contain only
small collections of stone tools, usually fewer than 100 pieces, except for a
few larger sites. Many of these sites were likely used multiple times over long
periods, but it is difficult to determine exactly when and how often humans
lived there. Instead of saying these areas were "occupied," it is
more accurate to say humans were simply "present."
Estimating the size of these
populations is difficult. Some researchers suggest that the total number of
early humans across Africa, Europe, and Asia was between 37,000 and 104,000
individuals, while others have guessed as high as 500,000. In Europe,
population density was very low, likely around 0.07 to 0.10 people per square
kilometer, although it may have been higher in resource-rich areas like the
Iberian Peninsula.
Despite their small numbers,
early humans were more widespread than some other large mammals, showing that
they were relatively adaptable. However, they faced serious challenges,
including competition with carnivores for food and the risk of being prey
themselves. Evidence from Dmanisi in Georgia suggests that carnivores may have
scavenged human remains.
The spread of early humans in
Europe was uneven. Most sites are clustered in Mediterranean areas with milder
climates, while very few are found in northern or eastern regions. This
suggests that cold weather was a major barrier to human settlement. The Iberian
Peninsula seems to have been the main "entry point" for humans into
Europe, but even there, populations may have disappeared and been replaced
multiple times.
The discovery of the earliest
human remains in Europe marks a significant milestone in understanding the
spread of hominins from Africa. Two key sites in southeastern Spain, Barranco
León and Fuente Nueva 3, provide compelling evidence of early human
presence dating back approximately 1.4 to 1.6 million years ago.
At Barranco León, located
in the Guadix-Baza Basin, archaeologists uncovered a single deciduous
(baby) molar attributed to a hominin, possibly Homo antecessor or an
earlier form of Homo erectus. This discovery, alongside thousands of stone
tools and fossilized animal remains, strongly indicates human
activity in the region.
Just 4 kilometers away, Fuente
Nueva 3 has not yielded direct hominin fossils but contains a vast
collection of Oldowan stone tools and animal bones with cut marks,
suggesting butchering activities by early humans. Dating between 1.3 and 1.6
million years ago, this site reinforces the idea that hominins successfully
colonized southern Europe much earlier than previously believed.
Both sites reveal important
insights into the environment and climate of early Europe. Barranco León’s
discoveries were made in a freshwater stratigraphic layer, indicating
that early humans inhabited areas rich in water sources. At Fuente Nueva 3,
stone tools were found alongside remains of Mammuthus meridionalis, an
ancient species of mammoth, suggesting that early humans engaged in hunting or
scavenging.
Fossil evidence from amphibians
and reptiles suggests that these sites once had a warmer and wetter climate
than today, characterized by hot summers, mild winters, and seasonal
rainfall. The landscape consisted of dry grasslands, rocky terrain,
Mediterranean shrubs, and scattered forests, providing an environment
suitable for early human survival.
Geologically, the Guadix-Baza
Basin was once connected to the sea but became land around 8 million
years ago due to tectonic activity. Over time, layers of sediment
accumulated, forming the uppermost stratigraphic levels where the
Barranco León and Fuente Nueva 3 sites are now found.
The presence of Oldowan stone
tools—including large limestone implements and small flint flakes—demonstrates
that early humans had already developed basic tool-making techniques to
aid in hunting, scavenging, and survival. Their ability to adapt to
available resources suggests a high level of flexibility in tool production.
These discoveries support the
theory that the Iberian Peninsula served as a crucial entry point
for hominins migrating from Africa. Its mild climate and diverse ecosystems
would have provided an ideal environment for early human settlement and
adaptation.
Recent findings at other sites, such as Sima del Elefante and Gran
Dolina, continue to shape the debate on early human occupation in Europe.
Researchers now explore whether human presence was continuous, limited
to southern refuges, or subject to cycles of migration and extinction
due to harsh glacial conditions. To resolve these questions, long and
well-dated fossil records are needed, shedding further light on the complex
history of early hominins in Europe.
The Sierra de Atapuerca, located 15 kilometers east of Burgos,
Spain, is home to some of Europe’s most important prehistoric caves. These
caves, formed in a limestone landscape, hold vital clues about early
humans. Since the area lies between the Duero and Ebro river basins, it
was a natural migration route for ancient people. Today, Atapuerca has cold
winters and mild summers, with a climate similar to other parts of inland
Spain.
One of the most important sites in Atapuerca is Sima del Elefante,
a 27-meter-deep cave. Scientists have found 21 layers of soil and
rock here, containing simple stone tools and human fossils. Studies
confirm that these layers date back nearly 1 million years, making them
some of the oldest evidence of early humans in Europe.
The most significant fossils found at Sima del Elefante, called ATE9,
include a finger bone, a piece of an arm bone, and part of a lower jaw.
These bones are estimated to be 1.3 to 1.2 million years old. Although
they share features with Homo antecessor, another early human species
from Atapuerca, there is not enough evidence to classify them into a specific
group.
At the time these early humans lived, Atapuerca had a mix of forests,
grasslands, and rivers, providing plenty of food. Climate studies suggest
they had to adapt to changing weather conditions, including dry
periods and colder temperatures.
Another key site in Atapuerca is Gran Dolina, a 17-meter-deep
cave divided into eleven layers. Scientists studying these layers
have identified a shift in Earth's magnetic field, which helps date the
fossils.
Excavations at Gran Dolina have uncovered human bones, animal
fossils, and simple stone tools. One of the most important layers, TD6,
is dated to around 900,000 to 950,000 years ago. The oldest layer,
TD1, is about 1.18 million years old, though it does not contain
human fossils. However, tools found in TD4, dated between 940,000 and
1 million years ago, suggest that early humans lived there.
The fossils at Gran Dolina show how the environment changed over
time. Some layers reveal shifts in animal populations, including the arrival of
venomous shrews, marmots, and spotted hyenas in Europe.
Studies suggest that during the Early Pleistocene (over 1 million
years ago), the region had mild temperatures (around 10 to 13 degrees)
and more rainfall than today. However, the climate changed in cycles—some
periods were cold and humid, while others were warmer and drier.
Plant evidence from different layers shows that forests and grasslands
remained stable, despite ice ages.
The TE9 and TD6 fossils represent some of the earliest known
humans in Spain. The TE9 fossils include a small jawbone, a hand
bone, and an upper arm bone. The jawbone has both primitive and more
advanced features, showing that these early humans had begun to develop
separately from their African ancestors. However, because so few bones have
been found, scientists cannot be sure which human species they belonged to.
Atapuerca is one of the most important archaeological sites in Europe,
giving us a glimpse into how early humans lived, adapted to changing
climates, and migrated across the continent. Research is ongoing, and each
new discovery helps us piece together the story of the first Europeans.
The TD6 fossils found at Gran Dolina are among the most
important human remains in Europe. These fossils belong to Homo antecessor,
a species that had traits similar to both Neanderthals and modern humans.
Their faces looked more advanced, while other parts of their bodies
still had primitive features. Their teeth were more like those of
later European humans rather than earlier African ancestors. Some
scientists believe that Homo antecessor could be an ancestor of both Neanderthals
and modern humans.
Studies of the jawbones, teeth, and arm bones of these early
humans show that they were different from earlier species like Homo habilis
and Homo ergaster. Their teeth were becoming smaller and more modern in
shape, while their arm bones had features similar to Neanderthals.
This suggests that Homo antecessor was a key step in human evolution.
Early humans could only survive in new areas if they had the right biological,
technological, or social skills. In Europe, natural barriers were not a
major problem, but climate, food sources, and survival strategies played
a big role in their movement. To survive, they needed meat and bone marrow,
especially in cold weather. They either hunted large animals like deer
or scavenged meat left by other predators.
Some scientists believe
that saber-toothed cats left behind animal remains, allowing early humans to
scavenge. However, discoveries at Atapuerca and other sites suggest that these
early humans had a more varied diet and were likely hunters and scavengers.
They used oldowan stone tools, made by chipping stones to create sharp edges.
At some sites, like
Vallonnet and Barranco León, evidence suggests that hyenas did much of the
scavenging, rather than humans. However, in Atapuerca, findings show that early
humans had better tools and more access to meat, making them more active
hunters. The TD6 level at Gran Dolina also contains the earliest evidence of
cannibalism, suggesting that early humans may have eaten each other in tough
times.
By around 1 million
years ago, early humans like Homo antecessor had developed larger brains and
enhanced cognitive abilities, allowing them to adapt to new environments and
survive harsh conditions. Recent discoveries suggest that humans arrived in
Europe earlier than previously believed, with advanced dating techniques
indicating their presence before the 1-million-year mark.
Evidence from
Bulgaria’s Kozarnika Cave, and France’s Hérault Valley, with stone tools from
approximately supports early human habitation before one million years ago. In
Italy, sites such as Pirro Nord and Monte Poggiolo, together with Germany’s
Untermassfeld site suggest human activity around 1 million years ago.
The UK’s Happisburgh
and Pakefield sites have the oldest known human footprints in Europe, dated
between 900,000 and 850,000 years ago. Likely made by Homo antecessor, these
footprints belonged to a small group, including children, traversing a cool,
forested landscape abundant with large mammals.
Their existence
suggests that early humans adapted to northern Europe’s challenging climate
much earlier than previously assumed.
Later, more advanced
stone tools, classified as Mode 2 technology, appeared in Europe. At sites such
as Solana del Zamborino, approximately 0.9 million years ago, and Cueva Negra
around 0.76 million years ago. However, dating inconsistencies raise questions
about their precise timelines.
Researchers continue to debate whether early
humans continuously inhabited Europe or experienced cycles of extinction and
reoccupation due to shifting climatic conditions.
Some theories suggest
intermittent settlement, with small groups surviving in isolated refugia, while
others argue that early humans were resilient enough to endure glacial periods.
Despite evidence of
early human presence in Europe before one million years ago, uncertainty
remains about their continuous occupation. Some researchers question dating
methods, suggesting key sites in Spain and Italy may be younger than estimated.
Climate models suggest
their presence was linked to glacial-interglacial transitions, as extreme cold
and dense forests posed survival challenges.
The lack of consistent
evidence makes it unclear if they were permanent settlers or occasional
visitors.
The Sima del Elefante
and Gran Dolina sites, at 1,000 meters above sea level, indicate early human
adaptation to harsh winters. Southern Spain’s Barranco León-D and Fuente Nueva
3 may be older, with the Guadix-Baza basin’s woodland and water sources
suggesting continuous habitation in the Iberian Peninsula for at least 300,000
years before one million years ago.
However, early humans
disappeared from Western Europe around 0.87 million years ago, likely due to
climate shifts. Faunal evidence from Atapuerca reveals environmental changes
that may have influenced different human populations and survival strategies.
Recent discoveries from
Atapuerca’s TD6 site suggest Homo antecessor had closer ties to Eurasian
hominins than early African populations. Some traits once thought unique to
Neanderthals may have appeared much earlier and were inherited by both
Neanderthals and modern humans.
One key issue in human
evolution is determining the most recent common ancestor of Neanderthals and
modern humans. Genetic studies estimate that this ancestor lived between 0.34
and 0.85 million years ago. However, the fossils from TD6 seem to be even older
than these estimates, creating a puzzle about how and when human lineages
diverged.
To explain these
findings, researchers have proposed the Central Area of Dispersal of Eurasia
hypothesis. This model suggests that early humans may have spread from
South-western Asia rather than directly from Africa.
According to this idea,
a source population in Southwest Asia continuously inhabited the region and
later spread into Eastern and Western Eurasia. This migration was influenced by
changing climates, ecological conditions, and interactions between different
human groups.
Another interesting possibility
is that some early human populations may have migrated back to Africa at
certain points in history. Climate studies show that the Sahara and Arabian
deserts experienced periodic wet phases, creating temporary migration
corridors. During these humid periods, populations could have travelled between
Southwestern Asia and East Africa, allowing for genetic exchanges and
new migrations. However, the fossil record from East Africa’s Middle
Pleistocene remains limited, making it difficult to confirm this theory.
In summary, the antecessor
fossils suggest that Homo antecessor was part of a larger Eurasian
evolutionary network, challenging traditional views of human evolution.
These findings highlight the complex movement of early human populations across
continents and the need for further fossil discoveries to better understand our
past.
The question of early human
migration in Europe revolves around whether hominins continuously inhabited the
continent or arrived in separate migration waves. If the Homo antecessor
was part of an ancient European lineage, then the evolutionary split between modern
humans and Neanderthals may have occurred over a million years ago. However,
the more probable scenario suggests that antecessor hominins migrated to
Europe later, originating from Southwestern Asia rather than being
the first settlers.
A key debate is whether Homo
antecessor arrived in an empty Europe or interacted with earlier
hominin populations. Fossil evidence indicates possible links between antecessor
hominins and later European populations, but the exact nature of this
relationship is still unclear. If there was genetic mixing with earlier groups,
it could challenge current evolutionary models.
Another important clue comes from
the stone tools found at the Grand Dolina site. These tools belong to Mode
1 technology, which is simpler than the Mode 2 tools that were
already in use in Africa at the time. If the antecessor hominins had migrated
directly from Africa, they would have likely used Mode 2 tools. Their
use of Mode 1 tools instead suggests they had Eurasian origins,
strengthening the idea that they came from South-western Asia rather
than Africa.
The earliest confirmed human
presence in Europe dates back to 1.4
to 1.5 million years ago, based on the fossil evidence. However, it
remains uncertain whether Europe was occupied continuously or through repeated
migration waves. Early humans in Europe adapted to harsh climatic conditions,
possibly moving between warmer coastal areas and inland regions
depending on environmental shifts.
The lack of sufficient fossil
evidence makes it difficult to determine whether Europe was settled by a
single migratory pulse or multiple waves from the same source population.
Future studies on the Gran Dolina cave site may provide insights into
the relationship between TD6 hominins and later European populations. If there
was continuous human presence in Europe since the Early Pleistocene, it could
force a reconsideration of current models on the origins of Neanderthals and
modern humans.
There's
an intriguing gap in the timeline between 900,000 and 500,000 years ago at the
Gran Dolina. Curiously, during this gap, there are many remains of herbivorous
animals, but it's unclear why humans seem to have disappeared from the area
during this time.
The
earliest human occupation of Western Europe undoubtedly occurred before 1
million years ago. However, it's challenging to pinpoint whether this early
settlement came from Africa or Asia, and the technology used at that time
doesn't provide clear clues about its origin.
This
gap from 900,000 to 500,000 years ago isn't unique to Atapuerca but appears to
be a widespread phenomenon across Europe. It seems that the shift from the Late
Mode 1 technology of H. antecessor to the full Mode 2 technology of Homo
heidelbergensis was not a local event but happened across the continent.
Several hypotheses emerge from this observation:
Firstly,
it's possible that the Homo species similar to or an ancestor of H. antecessor
that lived in Europe around 1.2 million years ago may have faced extinction
around 800,000 years ago. It appears that H. antecessor and related populations
were not very successful in terms of population growth until the end of the
Early Pleistocene, around 900,000 years ago. They began showing signs of
adaptability and growth, such as base camps, hunting, social cooperation, and
food sharing. However, these strategies may not have prevented their extinction,
and in some cases, cannibalism might have contributed to their population
challenges.
Secondly,
the Acheulean technology, known for its large cutting tools like handaxes and
cleavers, arrived in Europe around or before 650,000 years ago. This timing
aligns more closely with an Acheulean tradition from northern Africa,
suggesting a potential link between these regions.
While
there are no hominin fossils from European sites of this period, it's unlikely
that Homo antecessor groups adopted this new technology due to their small
numbers. Instead, it's more plausible that a different hominin group introduced
the Early Acheulean technology to Europe. However, these newcomers also had a
small population, and the continent went through a significant depopulation
between approximately 800,000 and 500,000 years ago, following the
disappearance of the Late Mode 1 and the earliest Mode 2 hominin groups.
Around
500,000 years ago, a significant change occurred with the widespread
introduction of the full Acheulean technology across Europe. This transition is
marked by the increasing number of sites and intensive human occupations
associated with this technology, and it's often linked with H. heidelbergensis.
Interestingly, this successful dispersal did not depend on the use of fire.
There's no evidence of hearths or fire use at Atapuerca or other European
sites, even in the more recent levels dating to the mid-Middle Pleistocene. The
general use of fire in Europe may not have become widespread until around
250,000 years ago.
The
absence of hearths at Atapuerca challenges the assumption that fire use was
universal during this period and raises questions about whether this
observation can be applied to the rest of Europe.
Finally,
the data support the idea that the Late Acheulean technology gradually evolved
into the European Mode 3 industry without external influences. This transition
aligns with the emergence of Neanderthals from H. heidelbergensis, shedding
light on technological continuity during this period.
From
a biological perspective, there's a shift from early Homo species and H.
antecessor before 800,000 years ago to H. heidelbergensis from 500,000 years
ago onwards. This suggests that Late Mode 1 from around 800,000 years ago
didn't evolve into the Acheulean of around 500,000 years ago, and the
relationship between H. antecessor and H. heidelbergensis is more complex than
previously believed.
The
ancient human species Homo antecessor had a unique mix of primitive and advanced
features. They had some facial traits that were similar to modern humans and
some features in common with Neanderthals and other ancient humans from the
Middle Pleistocene.
This
suggests that these "Neanderthal" traits were present in Homo
antecessor around 800,000 years ago and persisted in some Middle Pleistocene
humans. However, these features are not found in other ancient human species
like Homo ergaster and Homo erectus.
There's
ongoing research to understand the connections between different populations of
ancient humans in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Homo antecessor could be a
candidate for a common ancestor of Neanderthals and modern humans, or at least
very closely related to that common ancestor.
The
fossil evidence from Homo antecessor is well-dated, which is a rare and
valuable aspect. However, it would be even more useful to find more complete
skull remains in the future to study and compare with models predicting the
common ancestor's appearance.
The archaeological record from
Atapuerca and other European sites suggests that the shift from early to
advanced stone tools was a widespread event rather than a local development.
Between 900,000 and 500,000 years ago, gaps in evidence raise questions about
the fate of early human populations and the arrival of new tool-making
techniques. The introduction of Acheulean tools and a subsequent population
decline remain key mysteries in early European history.
Around 600,000 to 500,000 years
ago, human settlements expanded, particularly in central and eastern Europe,
reaching sites like Miesenheim, Schöningen, and Vértesszölös. Greece also saw
its first confirmed human presence during this period. Early humans mostly
settled near rivers and lakes, with caves becoming more common only after
500,000 years ago. Some sites, like Valle Giumentina and Caune de l’Arago, were
occupied repeatedly. A rise in stone tools after 600,000 years ago suggests
increased activity—Gran Dolina’s TD10.1 layer, for example, contained thousands
of tools and animal remains.
By the later Middle Pleistocene,
sites like Boxgrove and Hoxne provide clearer evidence of human activity,
though structured living spaces remain uncertain. Some researchers suggest shelters
at Bilzingsleben and Terra Amata, but this is debated. Schöningen, dating to
300,000 years ago, reflects small, mobile groups that returned to the same
areas but left relatively few artifacts.
Much of what we know about this
period comes from river deposits, where tools accumulated over time. British
river terraces suggest population changes, with peaks between 500,000 and
350,000 years ago, followed by a decline. Some researchers believe these shifts
reflect changes in how early humans used the land rather than actual population
growth.